H3S!Ss!T?<S,^> 



LIPPlNCOft'l 
EDUCJf/ONAL SERl> 

FDITED BT 

THE 

EDUCATIONAI 
PROCESS 




ARTHCR TARY Pf FSHMA- 



\f 




Class _^LI&.IA1.^ 
Book F.IL5_ 

CopyiightN" 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIK 



LIPPINCOTT'S 
EDUCATIONAL SERIES 

EDITED BY 

MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. 

SUPERINTENDENT OK SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA 

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VOLUME VI 



Lippincott's Educational Series 

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LippiNcoTTs Educational Series 

THE EDUCATIONAL 
PROCESS 



BY 

ARTHUR GARY FLESHMAN, A.M. 

PEDAGOGY AND TRAINING, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SLII'l'EkY KOCK, PA. 



' ' The TnUh shall make you Free ' 




PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 

1908 



L, 



Copyright, 1908 
By J. B. LippiNcoTT Company 



Published July, 1908 



U6RARY of CONGRESS 
twoCupies Heceiv<»(t 

JUL 3 1SJU8 

%fl eye 

COPY a. 



Electrotyped a>id printed by 
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IN MEMORY 

OF 

MY FATHER and MY xMOTHER 



AUTHOR^S PREFACE 



'^It is not the search after nor discovery of new 
ideas that makes an original man, so much as his 
ability to reclothe the old with some newness of 
appearance or meaning out of his own individuality." 

This book attempts to organize a new doctrine 
of education out of an old theory of thought. The 
peculiar method of treatment is original but the 
fundamental principle creating and organizing the 
educational process is the central truth of all phi- 
losophy. The trichotomy running through this text 
is largely a necessary form of thought but it is at 
the same time a convenient mode of discussion. 
Each threefold division is organically related to 
every other in such a manner as to form a systematic 
whole. The sub-topics throughout the volume are 
suggestive rather than exhaustive. 

In this pedagogy the problems of education are 
taken out of the domain of the mechanical, experi- 
mental, physiological, physical and psycho-physical 
and explained as a spiritual process. Education is 
a spiritual activity rather than a brain activity. 
The school is ''an organic spiritual unity" and not 
a material, objective, fixed thing. Teaching is not 
a mechanical process but a spiritual activity beneath 
the form. Life itself is not wholly physical and phys- 
iological but in the last analysis a spiritual process. 

7 



8 AUTIIOirS PRKFACE 

Each of these procu'sses is grounded in ;in(I arises 
out of ;i iinivers.'il process. The hc^ari-heal of Uie 
worhl is th(^ ihrohhin^ lif(^ of th(^ scJiool, the forma- 
iiv(^ (Mi(M'f]^y ill lea('liiii«z;, and the <»;erniinal ehuruuit 
of hfe. The total educational pr()(',(%ss is based upon 
a world ener«2;y transinutin<i; the real into the ideal 
atuJ the ()l)je(^tive into the siihjeetive. This en^ativc 
(^ncu'j^y fills th(> pupil with a forcu^ which enables 
him to work out a(d,ually what lu^ is p()t,(*ntially — ■ 
th(^ doctrine of self-realization and sj)iril>ual freedom. 

A j)hilosoj)liy in education Ix'comes valuabh^ to 
tlu^ tea,(dier in proportion as it reveals the huuw law 
of the Hcliool, as it vitaliz(\s t(^achin^, and as it 
furnishes the key which unlocks the mysteries of 
luiman lifc^ Accordin*; to this fundamental process 
in (Mlucation, tlu* en(M<i;y whi(di holds the world 
together is the force whi(di unifies t(^ach(M* and ])upil, 
()r^anizi\s mind and sul)je(^t-matter in t{^a(diin«z; and 
creat(\s th(^ tcMision of human lif{\ Tlu^ probh^m 
whi(di this book att(Mnpts to solve is to trace this 
(Miergy down through the world, through the school, 
through the teaching proc^ess, through mind and life 
and to give this formative principles an intense 
practical application in school managcMuent, in 
teaching the common l)ra,nches and in l\u) interpre- 
tation of mind and life. 

The model lessons are analyzed and })lann(Hl in 
harmony with the universal process and are thereby 
given a de(»p significance. Theses tyi)e studies illus- 
trate th(» fact that practice is in and through theory 
and that theory is in and through practice. The 



AUTHOR'S VRKVACK 9 

|)urj)oso of tli(\so hissons is to fisHist tho l(;ach(^r in 
applyirif]; tli(;K(^ fundiuiKUiial truths to the; i)ractical 
prohlcins of tli(; daily nHiitation. 

V(Hhv^()<i,y is not a (^on^loiru^ratc; s(;i(;nc(; of Psy- 
choloj^y, Pliilosoi)hy, Sociology, Ethics, ylOsthcstics, 
Logic, History, Literatun;, Sci(;rico and R(}ligion. 
This pedagogical doctrine; has a gerniinant truth 
which organizers th(;sc d(;[)artrn(;nts of knowh^dgc; 
into a n(;w and syst(!inatic whoh;. l^uhigogy has 
its own creative; and constructive thought-force 
which builds up an original sci(;nce out of the; above-- 
named niate'rial. 'J'he;se; subjects are not use;el in a 
liaf)hazarel inaniie;r but only to e;laborate; the ge;r- 
minant ieiea anel to illustrate and pe;rfe;ct the ce^ntral 
the)ught. 

In e;e)nstructing this de)ctrine of eulucation, J do 
ne)t claim e)riginality in the philosophy e;mbe)elieMl in 
the te;xt. 1 have foUoweel close;ly the; gre;at thinke;rs 
of the; worlel, ane;ie;nt anel moele;rn anel their inte;r- 
prete;rs anel have; incor[)e)rate;el into this te;xt the)se; 
iele;as anel systems of thinking bearing dire'ctly upe)n 
the; ceintral the)ught of this the;ory and i)ractice; (A' 
pe;elagogy. My eliscussion of si)iritual fre;e;ele)ni is 
base;el wholly upon one of the great books of the; 
we)rld. I have trcspasseel upon many syste;ms e)f 
thought but have attempte;el te) re;e',le)the; the;se; ide;as 
with a ne;wne;ss of me;aning elrawn from actual 
experience; in the; se;he)e)l-re)e)ni. The;re; is a i)uri)e)sive; 
repe;titie)n e)f the)ught thre)ughe)ut the; te;xt te> ke;ep 
constantly be;fe)re the minel the jundamenial 'process 
in education. 



10 AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

I am indebted to Prof. W. W. Black of the Chicago 
Normal School for reading the manuscript and mak- 
ing many valuable suggestions and criticisms. 

Arthur C. Fleshman. 

State Normal School, Slippery Rock, Pa. 
June 1, 1908. 



EDITOR^S PREFACE 



Philosophy, in a purely speculative way, observes 
the operations of the soul, and endeavors to explain 
these operations in terms of law or method. When 
any considerable group of mental acts is found to 
possess common attributes, that group is set aside 
as a science. As organized data it is accepted for 
human guidance. Thus science is all the while 
growing at the expense of philosophy. But the 
unorganized and unrelated data lying everywhere 
in the philosopher's workshop still affords abundant 
exercise for speculation. There is no likelihood that 
the philosopher will lack for data. Then, too, if 
all phenomena were fully catalogued, there would 
yet remain to the speculative thinker many funda- 
mental problems upon which for all time he may 
profitably exercise his reflective insight. 

Thus philosophy is a constant norm in the world 
of thought. By it all tentative schemes of thought 
are tested. To it all systems of thought are referred 
for final orientation and validation. 

Education, like a score of kindred studies, is a 
derivative of philosophy, and the value and sig- 
nificance of referring one's educational doctrine to 
its philosophic basis is apparent. This treatise is 
one of a group of kindred studies. The value of any 
attempt to formulate a pedagogical theory lies in 

11 



12 EDITOR'S PREFACE 

the following directions: (a) It compels its readers 
to go over, once more, the subtle and suggestive 
relations between pure and applied thought, (b) It 
should aim to make more lucid than do former 
treatises this relation, (c) Its^vfelti^^to the educator 
is conditioned upon the system of speculative 
thought upon which it rests foV its validity. 

It is apparent that one does, in applied fields 
of knowledge, his best work when he comprehends 
most fully the rational basis and the essential 
relations of his procedures. We do best what we 
understand most completely. Otherwise the em- 
piricist and the ''quack" would lead the world's 
progress. Teachers need to see clearly and funda- 
mentally the movements of thought which in the 
instructional act they aim to develop. This gives 
rise to vision, the teleologic spirit, without which 
all teaching is aimless and futile. 

Teachers deal so constantly with concrete matter, 
are so environed with unorganized thought-stuff, 
are so continually living in the realm of devices and 
special methods that it is easy for them to overlook 
the more subtle but none the less significant guidance 
that philosophy affords. It is well to pause betimes 
and ask ''why" and "whither." The answer must 
come from philosophy. Speculative thought alone 
can give adequate account of the reason for our 
educational processes, and indicate in some fairly 
definite way the goal of all intellectual endeavor. 

The justification of this new statement of the 
basis of educational procedure is conditioned largely 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 13 

by its clearness of statement and its simplicity of 
treatment. Students of education should be able 
readily to comprehend the author's meaning. The 
need is not so much for another statement as for a 
more lucid statement of the fundamental doctrines 
that condition and make meaningful the processes 
of the school. 

Many systems of speculative thought have been 
formulated. These necessarily vary greatly both in 
scope and in method of treatment. From the days 
of Plato until now philosophic systems of one sort 
or another have challenged attention and influenced 
the student of pedagogy. These systems of philoso- 
phy have run the circle of materialism and ideaUsm. 
They are as unlike and as confusing as are the 
teaching processes of untrained teachers. 

Germany, better perhaps than any other modern 
state, has produced philosophic minds. Naturally, 
the student of pedagogy seeks in modern German 
thought a basis for his attempt to formulate rational 
guidance for teachers. Among these German phi- 
losophers it is customary to select Hegel as guide 
and master. This is due to his radical departure 
from Fichte and Schelling in denying reality to 
both the subject and the object and in proclaiming 
that ideas are the only concrete realities. It follows 
that the first matter of moment is pure thought, 
the infinite idea. This idea later objectifies itself 
in nature, and then the idea regresses, turns upon 
itself, is perceived by the mind to be after all a 
product or process of its own activity. Thus, as 



14 EDITOR'S PREFACE 

pure thought, the idea goes forth, like the dove from 
the ark, only to return to complete unity and 
identity with itself. This circle being complete it is 
a relatively simple matter to trace the idea in its 
circle and to predicate spiritual unity, identity, to 
the idea in all its wanderings from itself to itself 
again. 

Pedagogy seizes eagerly upon this round of the 
idea and, balancing its status in its objective form 
with its status in its radically ideal or subjective 
form, erects a system of applied thought which has 
peculiar charm. Since this Hegelian idealism is so 
remote from sense realism it is comparatively easy 
to frame up a system of applied thought in a fairly 
definite and, at times, almost dogmatic way. There 
are no actual experiences near enough the circle 
to disturb the harmony of the thought movement. 

The danger lies in its very perfection. It is 
difficult for the ordinary teacher to see the applica- 
tion of all this brilliant balancing of thought-school 
and real-school, just as it is likely to be difficult 
for those who do see the beauty of the theme to 
actualize it, make it real with flesh-and-blood chil- 
dren in an ordinary public school. 

But the effort to reduce one's ideas to a system 
is well worth while. Each lives an experience that 
is unique. Philosophy is the test of this experience. 
Only in the realm of reflective thought do we find 
the basis for common understanding and that unity 
of meaning that makes for system and progress in 
teaching. We lose the best things in our experience 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 15 

when we fail to make lucid and meaningful that 
experience in terms of law, in formulae for guidance. 
Teachers need a clear grasp of a system of pedagogic 
principles before entering upon the actual work of 
instruction. This grasp of a theoretic system enables 
the young teacher to grow by reflecting upon the 
concrete experiences of his daily duties. 

The tension between one's real and one's ideal, 
the awareness of failure to achieve in practice what 
one visions in thought, is on the side of the will 
called conscience; on the side of the intellect it 
may be called interest. Intellectual advance is 
thus seen to depend upon a vivid realization of the 
gap between one's theory and one's practice. 

One's practice cannot rise above one's theory. 
To have no theory is to invite failure at the outset. 
To erect a high ideal, to establish an advanced 
theory is to make possible skillful teaching. It is 
the constant approach in practice to one's standards 
in thought that gives inspiration to teaching, that 
makes for large issues in the realm of the school. 
One's theory must not rise too high above one's 
experience lest the tension, the awareness of the 
gap, lead to discouragement and despair. For that 
reason it is always wise to couple with one's training 
in the theory of pedagogics actual practice in teach- 
ing. This practice gives one a personal experience 
to be tested and formulated after the fashion of 
one's theory, and it also gives one the only possible 
data, that of experience, by which to test the valid- 
ity, the workableness of one's theory. The more 



16 EDITOR'S PREFACE 

varied and real, and the less artificial and make- 
believe this experience is, the more valuable it 
becomes when organized into theoretic guidance. 
The person who evolves a theory of education, 
no matter how coherent, gives little sympathy and 
affords less guidance to growing teachers unless 
that theory is found to organize and make mean- 
ingful the vast sum of concrete data given by actual 
experience in teaching an ordinary school. This 
volume is an attempt to explain this data of experi- 
ence in terms of law and of philosophic guidance. 
The author has had an extended discipline both in 
the theory and in the practice of educational things, 
and presents in this volume his best thought as 
guidance for those who possess the hunger to know 
the meaning of every act of the teacher in terms 
of purpose and in formula of law. 

M. G. B. 

January 20, 1908. 



CONTENTS 



THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

PAGE 

A. THE SCHOOL PROCESS 19 

(a) The Creative Process 19 

1. The Spiritual 19 

2. The Teacher 29 

,3. The Pupil 39 

(6) The Instructive Process 49 

1 . The Organization 49 

2. The Recitation 59 

3. The Curriculum 74 

(c) The Humanistic Process 86 

1 . The Social 86 

2. The ^sthetical 98 

3. The Ethical 113 

B. THE TEACHING PROCESS 130 

(a) The Growth Process 130 

1. The Movement 130 

2. The Method 156 

3. The Purpose 180 

(h) The Thinking Process 190 

1. The Law 190 

2. The Development 210 

3. The Doctrine 237 

(c) The Life Process 256 

1 . The Problem 256 

2. The Tension 265 

3. The Interpretation 273 

C. THE UNIVERSAL PROCESS 283 

(a) The Logical Process: Idea 283 

(6) The Cosmic Process: Nature 293 

(c) The Spiritual Process: Mind 301 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 326 

INDEX 331 

17 



The Educational Process 



THE SCHOOL PROCESS 

THE CREATIVE PROCESS 

I. 
THE SPIRITUAL 

The School is created by a spiritual force which 
unifies teacher and pupil. The spiritual (nous, 
mind, thought, reason, ego) is the generative princi- 
ple of the world, and the essence and truth of nature. 
It is in its vital nature, creative and constructive, 
and is the active element of all thought and all 
things. The laws of thought are, therefore, the 
laws of things. '^The secret of the mind is the 
secret of the universe." 

The Nature of Spirit. — It is the nature of spirit 
and spiritual organizations to thirst after ideal 
attainments. There is an energy in spirit known 
as ''potential infinitude" which perpetually strug- 
gles for the highest good. The spiritual unifying 
principle of the school is a subtle force which not 
only knits teacher and pupil together, but has the 
power of transforming the natural pupil into a 
thinking being. There is an activity in and through 
the pupil which transmutes him into the realm of 

19 



20 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

law, order, and reason which is his other, ideal and 
true self. The school exhibits spirit as a process of 
working out through the teacher and subject-matter 
all the potentiality found in the undeveloped child. 
To understand any thing, it is necessary to probe 
into its creative energy and to analyze its creative 
process. To grasp the inner nature of the school 

and to understand its creative process, we 
Creative are ushcrcd into a study of spirit itself. 

One of the knotty problems of the world 
is to gain a clear conception of the creative power 
of spirit. However, we are taught that its chief 
function is to separate itself from itself and to 
make itself its own '^ polar opposite." The school 
created by an organic unity of teacher and pupil is 
the polar opposite of mind. It is also the nature of 
spirit not only to create its otherness (the school) 
but to gain its freedom by a return from this creation 
to itself again. J. F. K. Rosenkranz says: 

" Mind has reality only in so far as it produces it for itself." 

Spirit stamps its own nature upon the school in 
the creative act and produces in the spiritual organ- 
ism an activity akin to itself. 

The living spirit not only creates the 
Formative school, but is the formatlvc principle of 

all things. Whatever is, is mind, thought, 
idea, before it becomes objective reality. The mind 
pencil exists before the material pencil. The ideal 
creates the real, but the real returns upon the ideal 
and performs that function for which it was created. 



THE SPIRITUAL 21 

The house exists as idea before it springs into objec- 
tivity. Thought molds brick and mortar into a house. 
If it were possible to jerk out deftly the thought in 
the house, it would return to brick and mortar. 
Ships and railroad trains, bridges and cities are 
thoughts externalized. The world itself is a thought 
of God made objective, and all science, a process of 
unfolding, developing, and learning this thought. 
In the last analysis the school and the world are 
at heart one. An explanation of the school and, 
therefore, of all educative processes rests upon the 
solid rock foundation of cosmic philosophy. universal 
So far as we know, the universe is a crea- Tension 
tive energy constantly struggling between poten- 
tiality and actuality. This universal tension found 
in the physical world is transmitted into all organic 
existence. Within the plant there is a pent-up force 
which causes it to struggle for higher forms of life. 
The animal has an added increment of life, but still 
possesses the same tendencies to grow, to develop 
and to increase in size and strength. In addition to 
this same world energy found in the plant and the 
animal, man has the ability to set up his own ideals, 
and by force of mind to transmute himself into 
these higher possibilities. He has the ability to 
create an educational institution which he uses as a 
means of self-reahzation. The school is analyzed 
into the spirit of the teacher, and the spirit of the 
pupil unified and organized by the spirit of the 
world, the creating, originating, pulse-beating, har- 
monizing and world-producing energy. 



22 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The School Organism. — The inner nature of the 
school is found to be the ultimate principle of the 
world. The laws of nature and the inner law of 
the school are spiritual and can be grasped by 
thought only. Natural laws are great spiritual 
threads running through the universe which make 
it thinkable. If nature were without law or reason, 
it would be unknown to the human mind. Since 
knowledge is possible, mind finds itself in all reality, 
physical, institutional and educational. 

Both the school and nature are governed by law 

or reason. A natural law and the law of the school 

may each be defined as an observed order of facts. 

In nature the flower blooms and the tree 

Natural Law /•i«i xi iii 

puts forth its leaves. In the school there 
is an organic spiritual unity of teacher and pupil. 
The human mind is not satisfied with uniformity in 
nature and in the school, but seeks a cause which 
explains this constant order of things. 

The keen intellect of Newton demonstrated in 
mathematical and physical terms ('' directly as the 
mass and inversely as the square of the distance") 
the action of force which is the root-idea 
of law. Force is a form of thought and a 
form of things and is the inherent nature of the 
school organism. The educator is struggling to 
ascertain the nature and action of this spiritual force 
which is the creating, controlling and organizing 
factor of the school. 

To understand the final cause or doctrine of the 
school and nature, it is necessary to examine that 



THE SPIRITUAL 23 

phase of law which has for its object, the 
accomplishment of a function or pur- 
pose. The flower blooms that its species may be 
perpetuated. The spiritual creates the school that 
it may realize its essence, — freedom. Spirit not 
only produces itself in the school, but attains its 
freedom in its otherness. 

The thought of unfolding the spiritual nature of 
the child creates the school. The objective school 
returns upon the thought school and accomplishes 
the purpose of its creation. The external objective 
school is a means between a thought and school 

its realization. Thought or reason is the essence of 
the school and the material, objective, fixed school 
is merely an auxiliary factor in the process. The 
mind school exists before the matter school. 

Some educational thinkers are materialists and 
believe that the objective school is the real thing 
itself. Materialism teaches that matter seeks a 
central point, and if it realizes its ideal, it perishes. 
Idealism teaches that the essence of spirit is freedom, 
and that its realization is life and activity. The 
materialist thinks the school as dead; the idealist, 
as living, growing and developing. According to 
the doctrine of identity the material school is in 
and through the spiritual, and the ideal school is 
in and through the material. 

Perhaps the deepest truth found in the study of 
the school is the fact, that the principle which 
creates the school is the subject-matter of all studies 
in the school. The thought or reason in science. 



24 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

history, literature, and other subjects is at the same 
time the creative energy which produces the school. 
That force lurking in the school organism which 
causes it to come into existence and to grow, is 
the same energy (in nature) which creates the 
plant, the animal, society, the state, and the church, 
and causes them to grow and to develop into higher 
forms of existence. In each there is a struggle 
The Inner bctwecn the real and the ideal, the poten- 
struggie ^j^j ^j^^ ^l^g actual, and between what is 
and what ought to be. The unity between the ideal 
and the actual, the individual and the universal is 
never attained, but it is still the goal (gold) of all 
human endeavor. H. S. Nash says: 

" The may-be and the ought-to-be gather in force on the frontiers 
of the is to daunt and disturb it." 

This tension is the heart of the world and the 
life of the school. Through this struggle the real 
school is striving constantly to become the ideal 
school, and the real pupil, the ideal scholar. 

The school is a spiritual process of working out 
actually through the teacher what the pupil is 
potentially. The school, society and the state are 
conditions in which freedom is realized. The spirit- 
Freedom ual creates and organizes the school and 
Realized brcathcs into it the life of reason. The 
objective school is a means by which the spiritual 
attains its final purpose. It is spatial and is the em- 
bodiment of rational freedom realizing and recognizing 
itself in the objective school-house and school-plant. 



THE SPIRITUAL 25 

The spiritual energy creating the school is a 
similar process to the vital energy creating the oak. 
The productive energy of the school is as essential 
to its growth and development as the germinal 
matter of the acorn is necessary to the growth of 
the oak tree. In order that the acorn may germinate 
it requires soil, rain and sunshine. That the school 
may grow and function properly requires a teacher 
and a pupil as essential factors and the objective 
school as the non-essential. The school is an endoge- 
nous organism growing and developing from within. 
The law of its being originates from within rj,^^ 

and is not externally imposed. The inner inner Law 
law of the school is created by an organic spiritual 
unity of the essential factors. To understand this 
law and to follow its precepts require a close study 
of the unified action of the mind of the teacher and 
the mind of the pupil in the educational process. 
The school organism is an institution by which the 
individual pupil attains the consciousness of his 
own freedom. 

Unity in Difference. — The spiritual is the cen- 
tral factor of the creative process of the school 
and binds the other two elements, teacher and 
pupil, into a unity presupposed in their difference. 
These organic elements could not be linked together, 
were there no common nature binding them. A 
pupil is a distinct entity from the teacher, p^pn and 
but at the same time essentially related Teacher 
through the mutual element of spirituality. The 
consciousness of a pupil is inseparately related to 



26 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the consciousness of a teacher, for an individual does 
not become pupil only in relation to teacher. We 
know pupil only in organic, spiritual unity with 
teacher and a teacher cannot exist only in relation 
to an individual to be taught. This relation which 
binds the two together is a spiritual force and 
cannot be ascertained by sense-perception, but by 
a process of thought. 

The two essential factors of the school gravitate 
toward a third which embraces both and constitutes 
their ultimate existence. The pupil is essentially 
distinguished yet organically related to the teacher. 
Each has no meaning except in opposition to the 
Ultimate othcr and no significance apart from the 
^"'^^ other. The ultimate meaning of teacher is 

wrapped up in pupil, and the essential nature of 
pupil is in and through teacher. Wc arc finally led 
to think of the two vital elements of the school as a 
manifestation of a higher third. This third realizes 
itself by uniting its otherness in a bond of activity 
constituting the school. Recognizing pupil and 
teacher as "indivisible yet necessarily opposed, as 
incapable of identification yet necessarily related, 
we are forced to seek the secret of their being in a 
higher principle, of whose unity they in their action 
and reaction are the manifestation." Their dis- 
tinction is found in their relation and their inde- 
pendence in their connection. "Hence, we are 
compelled to think of them both as rooted in a still 
higher principle, which is at once the source of their 
relatively independent existence and the all-em- 



THE SPIRITUAL 27 

bracing unity that limits their independence." 
This eternal principle is the spiritual, which, in its 
highest manifestation, is the source of mankind 
and binds human beings together in an educational 
institution. The school organism presupposes a 
germinal principle which organizes and differenti- 
ates, which is hfe giving, and which moves the 
institution created to realize itself. 

Race Experience. — The Orientals do not under- 
stand that spirit is free. The consciousness of 
spiritual freedom first arose among the Greeks. 
However, the ancient Greek spirit was not entirely 
free, but depended upon the impression and stimu- 
lus of nature. Their thinking was conditioned by 
coming in contact with the natural. They listened 
to the murmuring fountains and gave objective 
existence a subjective meaning. The Greek spirit 
was not only observant but creative, not only per- 
ceptive but interpretative. It had the power to 
comprehend the meaning of the external world and 
to translate it into terms of intellectual and spiritual 
activity. The Greek spirit is not self- Evolution 
determining, not yet absolutely free, but ^^ i^'^'^edom 
must rely upon nature to give the impulse to thought. 
The element of subjectivity not realized by the 
Greeks was found among the Romans. This people 
represent the dawn of the principle of subjective 
inwardness. The mind now turns in upon itself 
and becomes abstract and universal. A political 
constitution is placed over the individual which 
creates personality, legal rights and private property. 



28 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The creation of the State as well as the creation 
of the School is a subjective process which causes 
the individual to retreat into the inner sanctum of 
the self and has for its ultimate purpose spiritual 
freedom. The Germans, influenced by Christianity, 
were the first to attain the consciousness that man 
as such is free. They arrived at the doctrine that 
the freedom of spirit is that which constitutes its 
essence. They, therefore, really worked out the 
problem that the school is to the pupil what 
universal history is to the race: 

"A progress in the consciousness of Freedom." 

— G. W. F. Hegel. 



II. 

THE TEACHER 

The School is a spiritual organism, created by 
the teacher unifying himself with the pupil through 
the thought and spirit of the world. It is, therefore, 
self-evident that the ultimate essence of 
both the school and the teacher, is thought. 
In fact, a teacher could not exist without being the 
embodiment of reason, for a thinking mind pre- 
supposes a spiritual principle to be thought. Subject 
without object is unthinkable. 

''The school is an organic spiritual unity" which 
grows and develops by the inherent power of reason 
which is not only the life of the world, but the 
essential nature of both teacher and pupil. spiritual 
It is a fundamental law of spiritual life ^°'^^ 

that thought can grow only by coming in contact 
with thought. The school is that organic process 
of uniting mind with mind, of fusing soul with soul, 
and of unifying life with life in such a manner as 
to strengthen all that is truest, noblest, and best 
in humanity. 

The Function. — The teacher is the mediating, 
organizing, and directing agency between the pupil 
and the world of thought. It is the func- Function 
tion of the teacher to analyze, to system- of Teacher 
atize and to present the subject of study in such a 
manner, that the unfolding order of the subject will 

29 



30 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

exactly correspond to the unfolding order of 
the mind of the pupil to be taught. The teacher 
must understand the logical order of the subject 
and the psychological order of the mind to be 
developed. 

The teacher finds his true life in the thought 
processes of the world as embodied in all branches 
of study. The pupil finds his better self in the life 
of the teacher and, finally traces out the thought of 
the world through the modified thought processes 
of the teacher. The pupil realizes what the teacher 
Constant idcalizes. The teacher is actually what 
stress lY^Q pupil is potentially. What the pupil 

hopes to accomplish, the teacher has already at- 
tained. The teacher has realized to-day what 
thought was yesterday, and what the pupil is 
struggling to attain to-morrow. There is a constant 
stress or tension between the thinking teacher and 
the world to be thought, and between the pupil 
thinking the thought of the world and the teacher 
thinking the thought of the pupil. 

The teacher should be to the pupil what the Great 
Stone Face was to Ernest. As Ernest grew into the 
likeness of the Great Stone Face, so should the pupil 
grow into the ideal character of the true and noble 
teacher. It is the law of life that we grow into the 
The Law ideal which the soul sets up. This law is 
Of Life ^YiQ fundamental principle of human life 

and is known as the tension between the real and 
the ideal, between what is and what ought to be. 
The teacher is not only the pupil's ideal, but he 



THE TEACHER 31 

acts as a powerful incentive in drawing the pupil 
to that ideal. In fact the teacher is the pupil's 
other self, the better self, the ideal self, and should 
assist that self as he would help himself. 

It should be the function of the teacher to present 
every lesson in such a manner that it will exert a 
dominant influence upon the spiritual forces of the 
world. The thought in every lesson should disturb 
the mind of the child, give him new ideals and new 
tendencies in life. Every lesson should be Every 

taught so as to affect the whole life of the ■^®^^''° 

child. Suppose the child is taught to-day that heat 
expands bodies. This truth illuminates his mind 
perhaps in his first lesson in reading, explains the 
origin and nature of winds and ocean currents 
in geography, and gives the expert scientist the 
fundamental principle in physics. If it be true, that 
every idea disturbs the entire life of the child — and 
it does — the teacher should not only know the subject 
in and through itself, but in terms of the pupil's 
life. Unless the teacher has that keen insight which 
enables him to penetrate into the dim future life 
of the pupil, and to realize the ultimate influence of 
a lesson, he has neither a moral nor a pedagogical 
right to assist in the educative process. The teacher 
must see arithmetic, history and geography as an 
unfolding process in the life of the pupil. He 
must be able to resolve lessons and subjects 
into the mental processes of the pupil and to 
bring them into unity with the pupil's entire life 
movement. 



32 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The Teacher's Characteristics. — The essential char- 
acteristics of the teacher are aptness, skill, tact, 
insight, enthusiasm, sociability, proper tempera- 
ment, charming personality, ethical refinement, 
personal magnetism and knowledge academic and 
professional. 

The apt teacher is one who is naturally adjusted 
to the profession and whose life seems to be in 
harmony with the spirit of the school. An indi- 
vidual having an aptitude to teach, to 
govern, to inspire and to elevate is a 
jewel of the first order and certainly has some 
divine guidance. Aptness is a characteristic diffi- 
cult to describe but invaluable to the teacher. A 
skillful teacher uses the means and mental energy 
to an advantage and never permits the mechanical 
phase of the school to be in bondage to the spiritual. 
The skillful teacher becomes tactful by 
reducing the machinery of the school to 
the minimum and operating the school as a spiritual 
energy to the end of spiritual growth. Skill and 
tact are acquired by practice in and 
through a profound knowledge of the 
teaching process. To be tactful or skillful in teach- 
ing one must realize that the inner nature of the 
school is a spiritual process and that the external 
phase of the school and of teaching should be made 
to harmonize with the inner life. 

No teacher can be successful and inspire pupils 
who is not enthusiastic. Enthusiasm in the pro- 
fession or in the subject taught begets enthusiasm. 



THE TEACHER 33 

Without enthusiasm, some one says, one is 
already dead. There may be perfunctory 
teaching without enthusiasm but no teacher devoid 
of this essential attribute will ever be classed among 
those who have been called truly great. Observe a 
room in the presence of an enthusiastic teacher 
filled with the missionary spirit and notice how the 
pupils are controlled as if by magic. A lazy, indif- 
ferent teacher, although a profound scholar, will be 
a failure in the school-room. But a teacher filled 
with enthusiasm and having a keen 
insight into the structure of the school 
and the function of the teaching process becomes a 
past master in the profession. The teacher attains 
insight by a reflective study of the nature of the 
educational process. The teacher of insight is the 
individual who has a philosophical grasp of mind in 
interaction upon matter. It is a growth process and 
is attained only by persistent study and reflection. 
Sociability is a charming virtue and a power- 
ful element in teaching and in government, and 
absolutely necessary to a successful teacher. A 
charming personality captivates children, 

„ , . • 1 J. Sociability 

transforms chaos mto cosmos, gives beauty 
and tone to the school and is a most potent factor 
in the make up of a teacher. The social teacher 
has personal magnetism and attracts as the magnet. 
The real teacher possesses a constitutional capability 
that bafHes description and definition. The artistic 
teacher must have knowledge, it is true, but he must 
also have a keen insight into the inner structure 
3 



34 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The Real ^^^ functioii of the school. Possessing 
Teacher these natural, temperamental capabili- 
ties and having a well-trained mind, the teacher is 
fully equipped to meet the problems of the school. 
He becomes artistic in his teaching and governs 
the school not from external authority but from 
internal spiritual power. The teacher has not 
really controlled the pupil, has not made him free, 
until he has caused him to control himself. In the 
light of reason, which is the supreme principle of 
both the world and the school, the pupil sets up 
his own standard of conduct and through his own 
freedom subjects himself to the inner law of his 
being which is also the absolute law of the universe. 

The true teacher loves the profession, loves child 
life and has the power and ability to inspire pupils 
to higher life by causing them to study, to think, 
to learn, to grow. An ideal teacher should have the 
creative ability of an artist, the profound knowledge 
of a philosopher and an attractive and pleasing 
personality. To obtain the ideal of ideals 
^^^^ in teaching, the teacher should acquire 

what Cicero sums up to be the requisites of a true 
orator, namely: ''The acuteness of the logician, 
the subtilty of the philosopher, the skillful harmony 
of a poet, the memory of jurisconsult, the tragedian's 
voice, and the gesture of the most skillful actor. '^ 

The teacher should be a truth seeker and truth 
lover. Truth has been defined to be the complete 
correspondence of the objective with the subjective. 
It names and defines reality, that which is. The 



THE TEACHER 35 

mind lives and grows and breathes in an atmos- 
phere of truth. Every truth grasped and thought 
by the human mind adds power and force to the 
individual. A true teacher must be ,j,j.^^j^ 

devoted to truth, devoted to study, ^^^^^"^ 

devoted to knowledge, and devoted to teaching. 
He is the apostle of truth, the guardian of mind 
development, and the cupbearer of intelligence. 
The teacher thinks and the pupil thinks, the teacher 
works and the pupil works, the teacher is devoted 
to truth "For Truth's own sake,'' and the pupil is 
devoted to truth for the teacher's sake and for his 
own sake. Truth mirrors goodness, beauty and the 
divine essence. It is through the teacher that the 
pupil gains a knowledge of truth and thereby attains 
his freedom. 

The Professional vs. Academic Training. — The 
teacher's knowledge differs from the scholar's 
knowledge. Academic instruction is a distinct proc- 
ess from professional training. The former ascer- 
tains the facts, relations, forces, processes and laws 
of a subject; the latter sets forth the mental proc- 
esses found in learning a subject. The professional 
aspect explains the mind's way of thinking grammar, 
history and other subjects. It enables the teacher 
to think not only history but to think the mind's 
way of thinking history. Academic instruction is 
a single mental process of thinking the subject. 
Professional training is a double mental process of 
thinking the subject into the mind of the child and 
thinking the child's mind while thinking the subject. 



36 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Professional Professionalisin requires a knowledge of 
Training ^]^g psychology of the subject in organic 
unity with the psychology of the mind. The 
psychology of a subject is not something added to 
the subject; it is in and through the subject. It 
is the necessary step which the mind takes in learn- 
ing a subject. Professional training presupposes 
academic knowledge. It is impossible to think how 
to think a subject without first thinking the subject. 
A fact is a fact only as it is related to mind. Some 
one says: 

"A fact is a thing made, and its maker is a process of thought, 
and this process of thought is a functioning mind. " 

Hence academic and professional knowledge are 
in organic unity and both necessary in the prepara- 
tion of a teacher. 

To teach successfully requires a thorough knowl- 
edge of subject-matter. The subject must be known 
in and through itself and in terms of related sciences. 
To teach English grammar in the most successful 
manner one should understand rhetoric, logic, 
psychology, linguistics and philology. To know a 
subject and to be able to teach it accurately and 
successfully, it is necessary to study it in all its 
relations. Scholarship or general knowl- 
edge is the first requisite in the prepara- 
tion of a teacher. The teacher should have a 
knowledge of mathematics, science, history, lan- 
guage, literature and art before specializing in any 
particular subject. Since education is knowing 



THE TEACHER 37 

something of everything and everything of some- 
thing, specialization logically follows general culture. 

In addition to academic knowledge to be taught, 
a teacher must make a study of pedagogy, psychol- 
ogy, logic, ethics, sociology, aesthetics, philosophy 
and the history of education. These subjects give 
the student what is generally known as professional 
preparation for teaching. Professional training also 
includes observation of expert teaching and actual 
practice in a model school. Practice in teaching 
should be under the direction of an educator of large 
training and experience who can criticise and unify 
theory and practice. The student-teacher 
should plan his own lessons, be responsi- 
ble for government in teaching, and be permitted 
to teach under normal conditions. An ideal Model 
School is one in which the teacher initiates and puts 
into practice the best possible theory at hand and 
is not restrained by the critic teacher. If the teach- 
ing is not in harmony with the best educational 
doctrine, then the critic teacher should suggest the 
proper mode of procedure, but still the student- 
teacher must originate his own lesson plans. 

Professionalism also explains the nature of the 
physical school. The outer school is the shell in 
which the inner spiritual school is housed. The 
physical school should be of such a nature 

. . . . The Inner 

as to assist the inner school in performing And the 
its true function. The inner unity of 
teacher and pupil determines the size of the school- 
room and the class to be taught, explains the mean- 



38 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

ing of school hygiene and school decoration and 
gives the key to school management. The condi- 
tion of the school-room, the text-books and appa- 
ratus are physical means of spiritual activity. 
When the physical school is equipped to harmonize 
with the inner law of the school, then the ideal will 
attain its freedom in the real. The material school 
becomes the universal school and freedom in teach- 
ing has been realized. The freedom which the 
teacher has attained, is the ideal school properly 
functioning in the real. The struggle is now ended; 
peace and comfort are secured; ideal teaching 
becomes actual; the potential develops into the 
real; what ought to be, is. This unification of the 
objective and subjective school is rarely attained 
but should be the goal sought for in every educative 
process. 



III. 

THE PUPIL 

Thought is the generative principle of the school; 
the teacher is the cooperating, coordinating and 
correlating agency, but the final purpose of the 
school is the spiritual freedom of the pupil. The 
pupil is organically related to the teacher by means 
of thought and grows and develops into spiritual 
life in proportion to the intensity of the mental 
combat between the teacher and pupil. The school 
may be defined as the spirit of the teacher flashing 
across the rising soul of the pupil in streaks of 
reel, living thought of science, literature, art, history, 
philosophy and other subjects. 

The School Essence. — The essential nature of 
the school is spiritual and not material. If it were 
possible to tie silk threads from the brain of each 
">upil to the brain of the teacher, these 

The 

threads would represent the school from a Material 
materialistic standpoint. These material 
threads are the organizing principle and hold the 
school intact. The brain, however, is merely 
the physical basis of mind. Brain tied to brain 
does not constitute a school. Education is not 
brain development so much as spiritual devel- 
opment. Perceiving, imaging, thinking, learning 
and knowing are not brain processes but mind 
processes. 

39 



40 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Since the school has been defined as an organic 
spiritual process, let us, therefore, tie the minds of 
the pupils to the mind of teacher by an immaterial 
thread. This force of soul fusing with soul, this 
activity of mind in unity with mind represents in 
its deepest meaning the true nature of the school. 
The constructive principle of the school is soul 
unity. The ultimate essence of the school is the 
living unity between the teacher and the 
Spiritual taught who are opposite poles of the same 
reality, the school, but yet are at heart 
one. The thinking mind of the pupil harmonizing 
with the thinking mind of the teacher, creates an 
institution called the school. However, the teacher 
rarely has the power to think the pupils together 
in that organic unity characteristic of the true 
school. The connecting link becomes broken. 
Pupils are in the school-room but out of school. 
They may be materially present but at the same 
time spiritually absent. The heart of the school 
is found in neither the pupil nor the teacher. The 
inner sanctum sanctorum of the school is neither the 
spirit of the teacher nor the spirit of the pupil but the 
two unified and organized into one vitalizing power. 

In the last analysis of the school the pupil sets 
up his own ideal and strives to transform his real 
into his ideal self. The heart of the school is finally 
School- located in the soul of the pupil struggling 

Essence f^j. gelf-realizatiou. The process of trans- 
forming the real into the ideal and making every 
ideal a stepping stone to a real is the school-essence. 



THE PUPIL 41 

The teacher assists in the educational process, but 
the pupil's self-evolution is accomplished by his 
own spiritual activity. 

The cosmic principle is again seen to be the heart 
of the school. There is a world energy which trans- 
forms the possible into the actual. Scientists tell 
us that this universal force is transmuted worid 

into all organic life. Since the school is Energy 

an organic institution, its inner law, the tension 
between the teacher and the pupil, is at last trans- 
ferred into the life and struggle of the pupil. This 
life-evolving principle, inherent in the child, ulti^ 
mately becomes the inner essence of the school. 

It has been said, as is the teacher, so is the school, 
but a more fundamental maxim would be, as is the 
pupil, so is the school. The pupil is the central 
factor of the school around which all 

1 • T mi 1 1 #• 1 The Pupil 

other agencies cluster, ihe school lund, 
the school-house, the teacher, the apparatus and 
the school authorities all cooperate toward the self- 
reahzation of the pupil. The whole educational proc- 
ess tends to the advancement and freedom of the 
individual pupil. The old theory that the teacher 
is the school, must be replaced by the more modern 
and fundamental theory that the pupil is the school. 
School flanagement. — If this reasoning be cor- 
rect, then all school government should be pupil 
self-government. If the school is evolved pupn seif- 
out of the inner consciousness of the Government 
pupil, then it would be logical and psychological to 
conclude that he and he alone should control the 



42 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

management of the school. It has been demon- 
strated in recent years, that a school can be so 
taught that it will become self-governing. As soon 
as the pupil comes in contact with the community 
life of the school, he should be taught that he can 
and must assist in controlling the school. Pupil 
self-government comes from within rather than from 
without. It is created by subjective thinking and 
not by external authority. By means of friendly 
discussions concerning school government, the pupil 
soon realizes the importance and duty of self-con- 
trol. He finally considers it a privilege and a duty 
which he owes to the community life of the school 
to help others to control themselves. 

Democratic school government should not be 
thrust upon pupils, but should be the outgrowth 
of days and months of careful consideration and 
explanation of the nature and art of school manage- 
ment. Pupils should be taught that the school is 
an organic spiritual unity existing between teacher 
and pupil and when a pupil whispers in school or 
bolts a recitation he has spiritually cut himself 
loose from the school. As the pupil is the focal 
centre of the school he through his own volition can 
and may destroy it. He can do that which if done 
by all pupils would annihilate the institution. As 
the offence is internal and spiritual, the 

Outer Deed ^ ^ i i - i x x 

Versus puuishmeut should be mner and not outer. 

As he spiritually cuts himself loose from 
the school, he must be spiritually and not cor- 
porally punished. Lead him to see his error. 



THE PUPIL 43 

Let him meditate a day or two without reciting. 
The teacher might have him write a composition 
on whispering or bolting in order that he may 
see clearly his mistake. The pupil carefully analyzes 
the offence and finally concludes that the outer 
deed is but an externalization of an inner spiritual 
condition. The pupil is a spiritual member of the 
school and when he breaks the unity with the 
teacher and the school he must by an act of his own 
mind restore the broken unity. When a pupil 
commits a wrong deed it should be his duty and 
not the teacher's to right the wrong. Since the 
school is a spiritual organization the pupil and not 
the teacher can restore this broken unity by think- 
ing himself into harmony with the life of the school. 
Suppose after the pupil has struggled sometime, he 
does not right the wrong. What is the ultimatum? 
How about corporal punishment or expulsion from 
school? Suppose some one should enter the school- 
room, upset the stove and throw the blackboard 
out the window. What should be done? The 
school would be destroyed by either act, and each 
should be punished corporally perhaps, expelled 
perhaps, but brought under subjection to law, 
kindly if possible, harshly if necessary. Then is 
pupil self-government a failure? Is the moral law 
a failure? Neither is a failure, but each embraces 
the highest ideals known in pedagogy and ethics. 

A close study of pupil self-government reveals the 
fact that many petty troubles inside and outside 
the school-room may be settled by the pupils them- 



44 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

selves. By this mode of school management pupils 
become more self-respectful, more thoughtful, more 
dignified and habitually more interested in the 
general welfare of the school. They are taught to 
become useful and influential citizens of a 
school community and thereby prepared 
to become better citizens of a state or nation. By 
means of the elective franchise pupils soon learn 
to read character and to understand the importance 
of electing able and trustworthy officials. By 
studying the nature of community life the pupil 
sees clearly that it is his duty according to the 
common law, the statute law and the moral law to 
testify when called upon and to be actively engaged 
in securing the best government possible. 

The final purpose of school government is to 
train pupils in the habit of self-government, self- 
control and self-direction. Conduct and order in 
school are secured through the teaching process. 
Teach to govern rather than govern to teach. The 
only government worth any thing in school is that 
obtained through interest and delight in the subject 
studied. Discipline through external means, by 
the authority of the teacher, by rules 
adopted by the Board of Trustees or by 
the State itself is not satisfactory unless it leads the 
pupil finally to control himself. The external means 
to secure this inner condition are a thorough and 
systematic knowledge of the subjects to be taught, 
artistic skill in teaching and managing a class, love 
for the child and love for the profession and a 



THE PUPIL 45 

determination to succeed by moral suasion rather 
than by brute force. 

Pupil self-government is the ideal to be aimed at 
in all school management. However, special pupil 
organization seems to be '^useless experience and 
expensive machinery." The School City, Demo- 
cratic government as worked out in the Chicago 
schools, and the George Junior League of New York 
are examples of modern ideas in school government. 

Universal Synthesis. — In an ideal school there 
Is a universal synthesis between teacher and pupil 
and between the various forces and factors of the 
school. It is the function of the school to cause the 
pupil to realize the spiritual principle which exists 
in his own nature and which is the ultimate reality 
of all things to be studied. The universal is the 
unifying force of the school and binds all 
parts into an organic whole. In studying Unifying 
the creative process of the school the 
student should ''find the unity of law under the 
difference of facts, and the unity of a higher principle 
under the difference of laws.'' This insight into 
the inner reality of the school reveals a necessary 
spiritual interrelation between pupil, teacher and 
subject-matter. To grasp a knowledge of this 
complete synthesis of the school leads the individual 
gradually into a unity of the world other than him- 
self and the school. This fundamental principle 
which organizes the school and which is one with 
the eternal reason of the world is finally transmuted 
into mind terms by the pedagogical student. 



46 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The pupil does not lose his identity in the school 
organism, is not wholly absorbed by the superior 
thought of the teacher, but should be the initiative 
force in the educational process. Modern 
Initiation of pedagogy puts emphasis upon the initia- 
tion of the pupil in the recitation. He 
studies, thinks, originates, plans and in some schools 
formulates the course of study through his own 
process of thought. The class is formed in a social 
group and the recitation is begun by the pupil 
making a formal statement of some fact. This 
statement may be questioned, denied or approved 
by a further discussion of the subject. This fact or 
principle is further elaborated by some one, and 
the entire recitation is based upon the mental 
movement of the pupil guided and directed by the 
teacher. Notwithstanding, the pupils may have 
full control of the recitation, there is a complete 
synthesis of mind, heart and soul of the pupils and 
the teacher becomes the final authority and source 
of knowledge on all subjects. The pupil takes the 
initiative in government, in instruction, on the 
playground, in literary societies, and is constantly 
trained in those problems requiring original thought. 
In the trichotomy creating the school, the spiritual 
synthesizes, the teacher analyzes and the pupil 
through his own creative energy makes the organism 
complete. 

Freedom Realized. — The pupil is the focal centre 
of the school from the view-point of both instruc- 
tion and government. He is seeking freedom in 



THE PUPIL 47 

knowledge and freedom in control. His actions 
are free when control arises from within, and his 
thoughts are free when he finds behind all existence, 
material and institutional, a self-activity, a soul 
akin to his own. The knowledge process is complete 
when the pupil finds himself in everything, in the 
school, in literature, in science, in art, in history, 
and in all studies. The managing process is com- 
plete when the caprice of the pupil is changed to 
harmonize with the rational order of the school. 
Law and reason are characteristics of both the 
pupil and the school, and when the pupil conforms 
to the divine order of the school he realizes his 
true worth and destiny. The law and order of the 
school harmonize with the rational order of the 
universe. The pupil must lose his life in this ration- 
ality in order to find his life truly realized. The 
school is the rational nature of the pupil "writ 
large" to which he must respond in all his acts and 
forms of conduct. The ultimate ideal in g^^f_ 

the school process is the self-realization of Reaiizatioa 
the individual pupil. This put in other terms, is 
rational freedom which elevates the pupil into the 
highest plane of life possible. The law of the school 
now becomes the law of the pupil in and through 
the law of the world. The creative process of the 
school becomes the life process of the pupil in and 
through cosmic processes which are the manifesta- 
tion of reason itself. This universal principle of 
reason is the creative and constructive force of the 
school and is the deepest principle found in human 



48 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

nature. Since both the school and the pupil are 
manifestations of this principle of reason, the 
supreme element in both is not mechanical and 
material, but rational and spiritual. The pupil 
becomes free, has realized his true nature when 
conduct and control spring up in the life of the pupil 
spontaneously without the aid of an external 
organization. The pupil obeys the inherent law of 
his own nature, and his actions in school are regu- 
lated by this divine principle. The pupil realizes 
his freedom, attains his ultimate good and highest 
state of pupilage when his life is made to throb 
with the life of the school in and through the life 
of the world other than himself. 



THE SCHOOL PROCESS 

THE INSTRUCTIVE PROCESS 

IV. 
THE ORGANIZATION 

It has been stated that the subjective school is 
created by an organic unity of teacher and pupil 
through the thought of the world. Corresponding 
to this ideal school, the objective school must now 
be organized as a means to the realization of the 
school idea. The creative principle in the subjective 
process now externalizes itself in the objective 
organization. 

To organize a school is to secure a definite rela- 
tionship between teacher and pupil, to form classes, 
establish grades, and to program the whole move- 
ment. Pupils must be carefully seated, 
skillfully moved, and artistically ques- 
tioned. Books and apparatus should be used at 
the proper time and in the proper manner. The 
external relationship of teacher and pupil should 
harmonize with the internal activity of the ideal 
school. 

The Class. — Pupils having the same advance- 
ment and reciting at the same time and place form 
a class. Pupils forming classes must be 

. , ., , . . . Class 

m unity with the subject-matter, m unity 
with the teacher, and in cooperative unity with 
each other. The class is an organism within an 
4 49 



60 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

organism; a function within a function. Classifi- 
cation does not depend upon age, nor primarily 
upon the physical condition of the child but wholly 
upon intellectual capacity. Pupils who can think 
the same subject-matter in unison with the teacher 
constitute a class. To teach the class is to teach 
the social mind organized out of the individuals. 
The social consciousness of the class is the individual 
mind of all pupils centered upon one thought. The 
teacher's mind must harmonize with the social mind 
and at the same time be in active unity with the 
thought of the lesson. Class instruction is much 
Social better than individual instruction; it 

Mind inspires the pupils to greater activity; 

it creates a spirit of emulation among the pupils 
and produces a higher form of mental activity in 
the pupils. While no two pupils may have the 
same degree of progress, all should have approxi- 
mately the same scholarship to be in the same class. 
To classify pupils properly it is necessary to make 
frequent promotions based upon accurate scholar- 
ship. Pupils are frequently well classified in arith- 
metic and at the same time are not well classified 
in reading. The classification may be good in gram- 
mar and poor in history, but real classification means 
a general average of the pupil's knowledge in all 
the subjects. Good classification naturally leads to 
good gradation. Good gradation is in and through 
good classification. 

Dr. Wm. T. Harris writes: 



THE ORGANIZATION 51 

"That a properly conducted class recitation is of far greater 
value than individual instruction is obvious from the consideration 
that the contents of the lesson are stated over and 
over by different pupils of the class, criticised and . ^\^^^ 

discussed, illustrated from the experience of different 
pupils, and the pupil has the advantage of seeing how his fellows 
encounter and surmount such difficulties as he himself meets." 

The Grade. — The grade is an organic part of 
the course of study and is based upon the growth 
and development of the mind of the pupil. Pupils 
constituting a grade move through school Hfe at the 
same time. It is exceedingly difficult to grade 
pupils in all subjects accurately on account of the 
varied ability in the different branches. The grade 
may be ideal in reading but imperfect in arithmetic. 
In order to preserve a well graded school, it is 
necessary to constantly adjust the pupils to new 
grades to correspond to their advancement. 

Dr. Arnold Tompkins says: 

"As a school is truly classified when the members of a class can 
join with the greatest profit in the same act of instruction, so a 
school is truly graded when each pupil in his forward movement 
follows the continuity of ideas determined by the natural growth 
of his mind. " 

To grade a school requires a prearranged course 
of study based upon the law of child growth and 
development. In attempting to work out a graded 
system it may be necessary at first 'Ho cross grade." 
Perhaps it may be necessary for three pupils of the 
fourth grade to recite arithmetic in the third grade. 
This pseudo-gradation will gradually develop itself 



52 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

into a clear-cut distinction and arrange- 
ment of perfect grades. School organi- 
zation and gradation must always respond to the 
inner subjective school. A grade must never be 
fixed and mechanical but flexible and adjustable to 
the life of the school. A school is a living and 
growing organism and must gradually throw off the 
outer shell to give vent to inner growth. Perfect 
gradation, promotion and demotion should be based 
upon the actual work done in the daily recitations 
rather than upon examinations. Written tests may 
constitute a part of the daily work but formal 
examinations should not be made the entire basis 
for promotion and gradation. ''The Lock-Step" 
problem in education may be solved by adjusting 
monthly the outer mechanical phase of the school 
to the inner spiritual movement. The outer form 
must grow and change itself to harmonize with 
the inner throbbing organism. The ideal school 
is struggling with the real, the individual with the 
universal, the what is, with the what ought to be. 
Again we find the heart of the school to be a polarity 
between two opposing forces. 

The Program. — No school can be taught suc- 
cessfully without a definite program of daily reci- 
tation and study placed in such a position that 
both teacher and pupils may see at a glance the 
movement of the school. This program should be 
flexible but at the same time it should be the basis 
of all school work and be in harmony with the 
course of study. It is just as necessary to run a 



THE ORGANIZATION 53 

school by a program as it is to run a railroad train by 
a time-table- There will be just as many collisions 
in the school as on the railroad; as many disastrous 
wrecks of the mind in the former, as wrecks of body 
on the latter. By means of a daily program of study 
and recitation pupils are kept in organic unity 
with the teacher not only in the recitation but 
also in the study hour because they are tracing 
out the thoughts planned by the teacher in the 
lesson assigned. 

School organization presupposes a definite pro- 
gram of study and recitation thought out and lived 
through in the mind of the teacher before the first 
day of school. The teacher must think ^^^ 

and live the first day in idea before he ^'""^^ ^^y 
experiences it as an objective reality. Such a 
definite method of procedure planned before the 
organization of the school gives the teacher con- 
fidence, ease, and. equipoise, and enables him to 
move quickly and accurately in unifying the various 
forces and factors of the school. 

How to Organize. — In order to organize a school 
it is essential to have a definite knowledge of the 
classes and grades, of the size and condition of the 
school-room, and to understand thoroughly the 
course of study to be taught. Having these pre- 
requisites in mind, a school should be so organized 
that in a few moments each pupil will be actively 
engaged in studying and reciting. After a few 
preliminary remarks (the shorter, the better,) the 
teacher announces that each pupil may look over 



54 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the first reading lesson. AVhile studying 
these lessons, the teacher hears a prelim- 
inary lesson in arithmetic and at the same time 
assigns a lesson in grammar. He then hears each 
lesson in reading and assigns the next lesson for 
study, and in three minutes after the school is 
called to order each pupil is studying and reciting 
and the school organism is performing its function 
as accurately and harmoniously as on the middle 
or last day of school. 

Prior to this actual organization a school must 
be secured, a contract made, the teacher located, 
and a full knowledge of the what, the when, and the 
how of the first day of school. The opening exercise 
is the first act in the preliminary organization 
because it focalizes and unifies all minds to a com- 
mon school thought. These exercises should be 
scriptural, literary, scientific, historical, biographical 
and mythological. 

The Inner vs. the Outer. — As all content has its 
form and all noumena, their phenomena, so all 
the elements of the inner subjective school have 
their corresponding external objective phases known 
as the machinery of the school. There is a military 
side of the school; calling classes, arranging appa- 
schooi ratus, receiving and dismissing pupils. 

Machinery j^^^ -^j^ig material phase of the school 
process is but a means of the deeper movement. 
When too much attention is given to the mechanism 
of the school the higher spiritual life is destroyed. 
The highest ideal is not military precision, but 



THE ORGANIZATION 55 

thought precision; not the manipulation of school 
means but the manipulation of mind in the total 
educational process. 

The fundamental principle underlying the com- 
plex activities of the school is the inner law of the 
school organism. ''The law of an organism is its 
own inherent energy moving forward by variety 
of functions in unity, to realize the end Law of an 
which called forth the organism.'' Within organism 
the school there is an inherent force (mind in unity 
with mind) which causes it to accomplish the pur- 
pose of its existence. Also within the plant, animal, 
state, church and school there is a pent-up force 
(energy strugghng with energy) which seeks its 
realization through a tension of the ideal and real, 
a polarity between the actual and the potential 
and a warfare between appearance and ultimate 
reality. 

The external school realizes its purpose by chang- 
ing the pupil from his original nature to his ideal 
nature. 

"Nature means that highest possible reahty which a Hving 
thing, through a series of voluntary acts, originating within or 
without it, may be made to attain." 

Thomas Davidson. 

The objective school must create within the 
pupil a desire to study, to grow, to excel, to do good 
in the world and give him a thirst for knowledge 
and a craving for higher life. If the pupil does not 
respond to the throbbing hfe of the school some 
incentive must be used as a means of stimulating 



56 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 



Incentives 



him to greater activity. Artificial incen- 
tives, as prizes, books, medals, tickets and 
percentages do not reach the inner life of the 
child, and hence should be rarely used to induce 
pupils to study. They are not in harmony with 
the law of self-activity which teaches that nothing 
artificial should ever intervene between the think- 
ing mind and the world to be taught. 

Natural incentives are desires which harmonize 
with the law of effort and the law of self-activity. 
Dr. E. E. White enumerates them as follows: 

1. Desire for good standing. 6. Desire for future good. 

2. Desire for approbation. 7. Sense of honor. 

3. Desire for knowledge. 8. Sense of right. 

4. Desire for efficiency. 9. Sense of duty. 

5. Desire for self-control. 

The school causes the pupil to externalize himself 
in his ideals; his individuality is changed into 
essentiality; the individual is made to accord with 
the universal. It is the purpose of the school to 
trace in nature, in the human mind, in social insti- 
immanent tutlous, iu history, iu philosophy, and in 
Reason reUgiou, the immanent reason which is 

the origin of all things. This reason is not an 
ethereal something seen on the border land of dreams, 
but is the indweUing and informing Hfe of the 
universe itself. The school also aims to discover 
this underlying unity of nature and mind, and to 
indicate how reason reveals itself as the indwelling 
life of science, art, morality and religion. The final 
purpose of both the external and the internal process 



THE ORGANIZATION 57 

is to teach the doctrine that every individual thing in 
the world arises out of some universal law of reason. 

"This universal principle of reason is the creative and construc- 
tive force of the universe. It is seen in the architectonic principle, 
which is the soul of the plant, in the creative and sustaining power 
in the animal and in man, in the formation of character, in the 
building of institutions, in the development of church and state, 
and of the arts and sciences." 

J. C. HlBBEN- 

As all cosmic processes are the manifestation of 
reason, so are all school processes a form of some 
mental activity in interpreting this reason. The 
deepest principle in the world is the cosmic 

organizing energy of the school. As all Processes 
forms of nature were created by this eternal princi- 
ple of reason, so are the outer forms of the school 
derived from this immanent principle. As the laws 
of the physical universe are ideal, so are the laws 
of the school spiritual. Neither the school nor the 
world is material and mechanical, but both are 
rational and spiritual. The school and the universe 
are processes in the development of reason. It has 
been said that '^all history is an evolution of this 
reason in the progressive unfolding of its inner 
activity." We have said that science is a process of 
tracing the universal thought of the world. Art 
is a manifestation of the spiritual in the sensible. 
Philosophy is a thought interpretation of the 
universe. 

The educational process changes the individual 
into the form of universahty. This is a form of the 



58 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

spirit's growth toward self-consciousness and has 

been called spiritual freedom. Education is a 

process of changing the potentiality of the child 

into actuality; it is a transition of the 

Education .,..,, .,., ,, 

individual pupil into a world-compre- 
hending process. Education is essentially a phil- 
osophical process; it is a study of thought as mani- 
fested in mind activity and revealed in the structure 
of the universe. Education teaches us that, — 

"Amidst all the mysteries by which we are surrounded, nothing 
is more certain than that we are ever in the presence of an Infinite 
and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed." 

Herbert Spencer. 



V. 

THE RECITATION 

The recitation is that part of the instructive 
process of the school in which the pupil thinks over 
what he has learned, and communicates his thoughts 
to the teacher and the class. The recitation is a 
mental movement through the thought of the les- 
son and an accurate expression of its meaning and 
significance. Pupils should not be re- 
quired to repeat or recite '^ words, words, 
words." The thought of the lesson should be 
expressed beautifully in the language of the pupil. 
Reciting requires thinking; thinking leads to expres- 
sion; and expression fixes impression and reflection. 

The Purpose. — The purposes of a recitation are: 
To excite interest in study, to train in correct 
methods of study, to ascertain how much the pupil 
has studied, to give explanations, to approve, to 
criticise, to stimulate, and to inspire to higher life. 
It should be the aim of every recitation to see that 
pupils understand the lesson studied, to deepen this 
knowledge so that 'Hhe mind will act Aim in the 
again as it has once acted." Each recita- i^e«itation 
tion should review the previous lesson, discuss the 
present one and make a preliminary study of the 
next one. In reciting pupils are drilled in thinking, 
studying, learning and power of expression. Accord- 
ing to J. G. Fitch the objects of a recitation are: 

59 



60 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

1. To find what the pupil knows, to prepare him for instruction. 

2. To discover his misconceptions and difficulties. 

3. To secure the activity of his mind, and his full cooperation. 

4. To test the result and outcome of what you have taught. 

5. To determine the pupil's readiness or ability to go on. 

6. To test yourself as his teacher. 

A Good Recitation. — The qualities of a good 
recitation are a lively attention, a mastery of the 
lesson, promptness, dispatch, order, enthusiasm, 
and a happy disposition on the part of both teacher 
A Perfect ^^^ pupil. A pcrfcct rccitatiou is one in 
Recitation which pupils rccltc accurately, freely, and 
joyfully. It is one in which the teacher talks less, 
but causes the pupil to think and to express himself 
more. The true teacher has such consummate 
skill and insight into the nature of mind and subject- 
matter as to hold the school organism intact and 
cause each unit to function properly. In a good 
recitation both teacher and pupil must thoroughly 
understand the lesson, the mechanical friction must 
be reduced to a minimum and spiritual unity of 
teacher, pupil and thought must be made the crown- 
ing purpose. A lesson is successful when order is 
maintained, when interest is secured in the subject, 
when proper means are used to attain certain mental 
steps and to inspire the pupils to hard work. 

To conduct a good recitation, there must be 
harmony and good will between teacher and pupil, 
a deep interest in the subject studied, an exhaustive 
and spirited discussion of the lesson, and on the 
part of the teacher a profound grasp of the funda- 



THE RECITATION 61 

mental law of teaching. The outer mechanism of 
the recitation must breathe the spirit of the inner 
subjective nature of the school. The subjective 
school externalizes itself in the recitation. All the 
forces operating in the school are focalized Forces 

and centralized in the recitation of a Centralized 
lesson. This is the central activity and pulse-beat 
of the school and success in the recitation means 
that the outer school has realized its final purpose. 
The ultimate purpose of all educational processes, 
is objectified and attained in the recitation. The 
school fund, the school-house, the apparatus, the 
academic and professional training of the teacher 
are all put in the recitation. It becomes successful 
and artistic when there is accuracy and beauty of 
presentation, and when all mechanical means are 
subordinated to spiritual activity. 

The length of a recitation should depend upon 
the age of the pupil, the nature of the subject studied, 
and the surrounding conditions. The recitation 
period in the primary grades should usually be 
short. However, in the school-garden, in the school- 
kitchen, in the laboratory, and in the study of 
actual concrete nature, the period of the recitation 
may be lengthened on account of the exciting sur- 
roundings. For more advanced pupils a longer 
period is possible and necessary. In 
the higher subjects more time is needed ofthe 

for the discussion of a lesson. The 
pupil's mind is able to follow a train of thought longer 
and the recitation now becomes an intense process 



62 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

in spiritual development. Recitations should be so 
coordinated that the interest gained in one should 
be carried over to the next. Sometimes in the 
study of a poem, a mathematical problem, or a 
scientific experiment, the lesson may continue a 
week. In the study of ''The Chambered Nautilus," 
in the solution of the Pythagorean theorem, or in 
the physical demonstration of the rotation of the 
earth by the Foucault Experiment, the same lesson 
may continue profitably for several days. In general 
the recitation should have sufficient length to discuss 
thoroughly all the important thoughts contained in 
the lesson. The recitation period as well as the 
other educational processes, has a tripartite nature: 
An introduction, a discussion and a conclusion. The 
introduction should not only outline the next lesson 
Parts of a briefly, but unify the present lesson with 

Recitation ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ rpj^^ disCUSsloU should 

proceed according to some logical plan thought 
out. The conclusion sums up the points in 
the lesson and should be full of feeling and 
inspiration. 

Method in the Recitation. — There are many me- 
chanical ways and plans of conducting a recita- 
tion. Pupils may recite in concert in reading, in 
number work, in reviewing historical facts, in stating 

principles in grammar, arithmetic, geog- 
socratic raphy and physiology and in learning 

definitions and quotations verbatim. This 
is purely a mechanical mode of procedure and 
should be used only occasionally and for variety 



THE RECITATION 63 

sake. The Socratic or catechetic method is valu- 
able in thoroughly testing the pupil, in logically 
unfolding the subject and in introducing new and 
related matter. E. E. White says: 

"There is no test of knowledge as searching and thorough as 
a skillful question," 

Skill in asking questions is attained by a true 
insight into the essential movement of the mind 
of the pupil in learning a subject. While books on 
questioning are of little value a few general direc- 
tions may be helpful to the teacher. Questions 
should be clear, concise, definite, logical, to the 
point, adapted to the capacity of the learner, and 
never ambiguous. Questions should be avoided 
that give a choice between two answers and that 
exercise the memory only. Direct and set questions 
are of little value in the teaching process. The 
object of the catechetic method is to find out what 
pupils know, to ascertain what they need to know, 
to awaken within them a curiosity to know, to 
arouse the mind to action, to illustrate, to explain^ 
to give knowledge, to fix knowledge in the mind 
and to secure thoroughness. In the Socratic method 
a few cautions should be observed: Ask questions 
only once, vary the questions, begin with easy 
questions, let questions be connected, do not suggest 
the answers, ask questions distinctly, do not ridi- 
cule answers, never tell what the child can tell, 
question the lesson into the mind and question the 
lesson out of the mind. 



64 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

However, the question method does not drill the 
pupil in the power of thought and expression as well 
as the topic method. By reciting topically, the 
Topic pupil gains a mastery of utterance and 

Method ^^ ability in the systematic arrangement 

of his thoughts. It cultivates his expressive powers, 
gives him a facile use of language and initiates him 
into the realm of forensics, debating, public speaking 
and oratory. The topic method gives both the 
teacher and the pupil an opportunity to introduce 
supplementary matter in the recitation. 

Pupils may be called on to recite in a consecutive 
or promiscuous order. The former has the advan- 
tage in point of time and the latter in point of atten- 
tion. While the consecutive method is easier for 
the teacher the promiscuous method keeps intact 
the organic spiritual nature of the school. The 
Lecture lecturc mcthod is perhaps the best for 

Method advanced classes provided the pupil does 

the lecturing. He prepares a talk on the eye, the 
Pilgrims, the infinitive, Evangeline, Cuba or cube 
root and discusses the subject for twenty or thirty 
minutes in a masterly and inspiring manner. It 
develops the individual's self-activity and is a much 
better method of review than the formal written 
examination. In general the oral method is adapted 
to child life and the written method for more ad- 
vanced students. However, both may be used 
successfully throughout the entire school work. 
The written method gives the child the mechanics 
of learning and aids pupils in the higher grades in 



THE RECITATION 65 

studying and preparing a lesson in a systematic 
manner. The skillful teacher will devise some 
written work in almost every recitation. It gives 
definiteness to preparation and assists the mind in 
gaining and retaining knowledge. 

The concrete method with objects, diagrams, the 
numerical frame, geometrical blocks, the globe, 
the eye or heart is the form of instruction for the 
elementary grades. The abstract method, using 
rules, tables, definitions, principles is adapted to 
mature students. While the general law of these 
methods has been stated so far as the common 
school is concerned, the concrete method 

. ... T-» • Concrete and 

IS also used m universities. Botany is Abstract 
studied with the plant in hand, geology 
by observing and collecting specimens and chem- 
istry by using the concrete elements in the labora- 
tory. The abstract method must be used in the 
lower grades in fixing certain principles and in 
gradually leading the child as his mind develops 
from concrete reality into the realm of abstract 
thought. 

The synthetic method of going from parts to 
wholes, of beginning the study of geography at 
home and the study of grammar by words, sentences 
and then discourse, is the primary method. 
The analytic method of proceeding from And 

wholes to parts, of beginning geography 
with the globe and grammar with the sentence, is 
the movement of mind best suited to advanced 
thinking. However, the movement of mind is 
5 



66 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

analytico-synthetical in gaining knowledge. Accord- 
ing to the inner law of the mind it first seizes the 
object indistinctly, then analyzes it into its definite 
elements, again fixing its attention upon the isolated 
attributes and lastly unifies and organizes these 
elements into the original whole. Every process of 
analysis must be supplemented by a process of 
synthesis. As the pupil analyzes the eye he synthe- 
sizes the parts and as he synthesizes he further 
analyzes until he attains a definite and thorough 
knowledge of all the attributes and parts. Every 
subject taught must include both methods, because 
these methods embrace the law of knowing, the law 
of thinking and the law of learning. 

By the inductive method ideas are studied before 

words and examples before rules. By the deductive 

method the mind moves from general truths to 

particular facts. The analytic method is deductive, 

and the synthetic method is inductive. In 

Inductive i . i . i i • 

And the mductive method the teacher begms 

with the individual object comparing it 
with other individuals, noting likenesses and differ- 
ences and gradually arrives at the development of 
the general notion. By observing a small stream of 
water, a creek and finally a river, the general notion 
of the river is derived as an inductive process. 
Solving problems in square or cube root by the 
blocks, and then formulating a rule is an inductive 
process. The old method of committing the rule 
to memory in arithmetic and then solving the 
problem is the deductive process. The deductive 



THE RECITATION 67 

method is used by studying the facts concerning 
the human body and then verifying them by actual 
observation; by studying a text-book on botany 
and then examining specimens of plants to illus- 
trate principles, and by learning mathematical 
axioms and principles and then applying them in 
the solution of problems. 

It seems from this discussion that there are many 
methods of conducting a recitation, many move- 
ments of mind in teaching and many different 
processes of attacking subject-matter. In the last 
analysis, there is only one method of one 

conducting a recitation and that is the Method 
manner in which the mind identifies itself with the 
thought and spirit of the world other than itself. 
The problem in the recitation is the problem in 
philosophy — translating the subjective into the 
objective and ascertaining the objective to be the 
subjective. 

Planning a Lesson. — A thorough preparation of 
the lesson by both teacher and pupil, a systematic 
plan of procedure and a proper assignment are 
essential factors in every recitation. To plan a 
lesson is to know the method in the subject and the 
method in the learning mind and to be able to 
transmute the thoughts of the lesson into the 
thinking mind. In planning a recitation ToPian 
the teacher works through the lesson, a Lesson 
ascertains the exact thought and arranges and 
organizes it into teachable form. The teacher must 
analyze the subject to be taught into its mental 



68 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

processes and see clearly the movement of the pupil's 
mind in grasping it. He must understand the law 
of psychology on one side, and the law of subject- 
matter on the other. The artistic teacher must 
adjust the developmental phases of the subject 
to corresponding stages of mind growth in the child. 

In planning a lesson we should proceed on the 
assumption that education is an organic process of 
uniting two forces: Mind including its activities, 
Education powcrs and processes, and subject-matter 
Organic including its laws, facts and principles. 
The educational process as realized in the recitation 
transmutes these subject activities into correspond- 
ing mind activities. The possibilities of mind 
become realities through the interaction of subject 
and object. The recitation is that artistic process 
of adjusting the growing mind to a similar mind 
process found in the subject studied. In order to 
illustrate the value and purpose of planning a lesson 
the following brief type plans are given. 

In planning a lesson the means, mental steps, 
and the purpose should be noted. To teach the 
child the idea, foot, the teacher uses the foot-ruler. 
The pupil measures a foot on the desk and black- 
board, cuts paper a foot long and brings in objects 
a foot in length. To teach the idea, foot, pupils 
must see the tangible thing and then think foot in 
the abstract. They should be made to see that 
foot is not a certain length of a material thing, but 
that it is a certain portion of space in one direction. 
There are two steps in thinking foot: One seeing 



THE RECITATION 69 

a foot, and the other, imaging the meaning back 
of the material thing. The pupil must get a clear- 
cut distinction between material foot and to Think 
ideal foot, foot in the mind and foot in ^°°* 

reality. In fact foot is mental rather than material. 
The mind moves from the concrete ruler to the 
abstract idea of foot. To think foot is to unify the 
real with the ideal. The child cannot think material, 
for meaning is universal. To think foot is to under- 
stand that universal element which constitutes foot 
wherever it may be found. Thinking is seeing 
relations and is a process of translating the objec- 
tive into the mind. The vital, living unity is at 
last attained, knowledge is obtained and spiritual 
freedom realized. The purpose or final aim in 
teaching foot is to gain a new idea which acts as an 
organ of knowing and which aids the pupil in 
mastering other forms of knowledge. Teaching the 
idea of foot disciplines the mind in seeing and 
thinking, and beautifully illustrates the process of 
the mind moving from the concrete to the abstract. 
From the material ruler the child ascertains the 
meaning or significance which alone leads into the 
realm of knowledge and freedom. 

It requires a higher form of mental activity to 
think number than to think an object. Number is 
not an object, it is not a mental picture, it is not a 
figure, it is not a quality of an object, to Think 
but has been defined by Newton as an Number 
abstract ratio of one quantity to another of the 
same kind. For a pupil to be able to think two- 



70 TIUO EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

thirds, the teachor us(\s sucli means as crayons, 
balls, squares, chairs and sticks. It requires a 
higher activity of thought to think two-thirds than 
to think a foot. The mind first thinks the quality, 
shape and form, and then thinks away quality and 
thinks quantity. TIk^ category of quality gradu- 
ally emerges into the category of (|uantity. External 
perception becomes internal perception and pln;- 
nomenal activity takes the form of noumenal 
activity. To think a fraction is a triple mental act. 
The pupil first thinks two as a relational activity, 
then three, and lastly thinks them in relation, in 
one thought proc(^ss. It recjuires a vigorous mind 
activity to think these tripartite elements, quality, 
quantity and relation in a single process. When 
the child is first introduced into the study of frac- 
tions he frequently fails in understanding the sub- 
ject on account of a lack of mental power. The 
aim of this lesson is to train the mind in abstract 
processes of thought. The number idea leads the 
pupil into a form of mental activity necessary to 
gain any knowledge whatever. It trains the mind 
in that universal and fundamental form of activity 
which is found in the world other than itself. He 
attains lesthetic freedom by finding himself reflected 
in the foot and in the two-thirds which are types of 
his own life. The ])Ui)il delights in learning foot and 
two-thirds, because in these objects he finds his true 
ideal self mirrored. To awaken the pupil's aesthetic 
emotion gives him a tendency to higher life and 
an inspiration to seek truth, beauty and goodness. 



THE RECITATION 71 

"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 

The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. " 

In planning to teach this quatrain, the pupil must 
first study the life of Thomas Gray and secondly get 
a clear idea of an elegy. The mental steps in teach- 
ing and thinking this stanza are perceiv- to Think 
ing the words, imaging the meaning, and ^ ^"^"^ 
identifying the self with the thought and feeling 
of the stanza. In studying any literary selection 
the mind is first directed toward the sign or word 
and then secondly toward the signification or 
meaning. The pupil should be taught the meaning 
of curfew, cover the fire; knell, the sound of a funeral 
bell; lea, a meadow or field; and parting, used by 
aphseresis, for departing. He should be required 
to think the poetic meaning of winds, to note the 
poetic effect of plods and the alliterative signifi- 
cance of "weary way'' and "plowman plods. '^ 
The next step is to think the stanza into poetic 
feet and to understand iambic pentameter. The 
pupil lastly identifies himself with the thought, 
rhyme and rhythm of the quatrain and translates 
it into his own life. In the musical flow he realizes 
the meaning of the syncope and the aphseresis. The 
final act in teaching and thinking the stanza is to 
picture the imagery, not only mentally, but in colors 
on paper. The spirit of the stanza is externalized, 
mind identifies its otherness and hence spiritual 
freedom is realized. 



72 'llll': hlDllCA'IIONAL im{(h;i<:ss 

A Work of Art. A rccilM'ition should he so 
planned, jul.'ipl-cd, :ur}ui[^(Ml juid so cnriclicd Jis to 
form a work of jirl. Tfic ordin;iry l-cjudicr is usujilly 
HJit/is(i('(l wilJi ucvurav/y in llic icciiMl/ion, l)iii, \.\\(\ 
'u]vii\ tcjM'lici- would M,dd hcjuity. I'rownin^ s.'iys: 

"II' y«Mi f!;<'.l, /;iiiij»l(t Ix-Jinly iui<i n;Mifi;lil, cl/x;, you ^cl uhoiil. tlio 
Ix'mI iJiiiif^ ( Jo<l iiiV(!M(,H. " 

To iM'coinc II work of nil., the icc/ital/ion should 
cxpicss Mic free cinhodinicnl/ ol" t,liou^lil/ in ji,pj)ro- 
prijiXc lonn. 'riicic inusl, be a nice jMljusl-mcid^ of 
A.ijiiMiir...,.! l.liour;ht to IIh' lesson recited, 'i'lie r(^oi- 
A...I Hniiii.rr j,,jj,,,, ,,,,|.c.(, |,(. ('() r 1 (1 u c (,('( I ill <'ui ofderly 
pljui juid in written lessons. " I'^very sheet pro(lu(*('d 
by pupils in s(diool should be b;d;ui(M'd in cHeet, 
:iiid thus reflect some echo of the lijirmony of a 
work of art. \a\1 ji (diild onvv ^rasp th(! principle 
of bi'dancc; nrid his ev(^ry j)M,per tnkes on a new and 
fascimttin;.!; inl-erest; he himself is no longer an 
nrtisnri; he is exjdicd into I, he renJm of l,he .M,rl,ist." 

A recitidion is consid(M'ed Ix^'ujtiful when the 
HpirituM,l jM'tivity is not retjirded by Ihe me(di;i,ni(^M,l 
meJUis USe(l. The exteriinl fMctors, the ii |)p;i,i;i,tus, 
th(^ seal/inji; of pupils, tli(^ condition of the sfdiool- 
room juid the manner of recitinj!; must ;dl respond 
to the inner life .'ind ener^!;y of the s(diool. I'\)r <m, 
|{.uM(iiii..M recit.'i,ti(m to be bcMutiful this enerf!;y musl- 
itc.uii.fui ii^^j 1^^, ju bondit^e to tlu^ outer form or 
mechn.nic<'d phase, but- must move; frcu^ly. A recita- 
tion becomes M, work of nrt when there is free and 
cnsy rnovemenl, of thou;.!;ht Jind when the outcM" 



THE RI^XJITATION 7.'^ 

forMi assists tlu^ inner spirit of th(; school in realizing 
its tru(^ purpose. 

Iri th(; r(H'/itation the; fnuMlorri of tfu; sf)irit of i]\(i 
child is con(iition(!(l in and through soni(; (;xternal 
stiinuhis. It is a work of art because it why u w.>rk 
assists in spiritual fnuMJom. Thci activity ^^^ '^'"^ 

of spirit is not free; until it springs up unaided by 
th(; factors of the nicitation. 'i'he recitation may 
be compared to th(; Cr(;(;k S[)irit b(!cause it is a 
inind f)roc(;ss aid(Ml })y th(; natural. The mind of 
the pupil during the; stag(; of the develo[nnent of 
the school recitation n(;eds th(i excitement produced 
by the various external forces and factors embodied 
in the; recitation. The stud(;nt is not able to carry 
Oil an exten(I(;d train of thought without the aid of 
th(; recitation stimulus. It is a work of art b(;caus(.' 
it deals with thoughts, ideas and conceptions pro- 
jected in tangible form. It deals with spiritual 
processes and aims at spiritual freedom. Jn the 
final analysis of tin; (;ducational fjroccss, the teacher 
becomes artist, th(.' n^citation is transform(;d into 
a work of art, the pupil is metamr)rphos(!d in and 
through the spiritual energy of the recitation. The 
teach(;r is the Raphael, the recitation is the ''Trans- 
figuration" and the pupil is th(; being transfigured.. 



VI. 

THE CURRICULUM. 

The movement of the mind, in the recitation 
naturally leads to that larger movement of thought 
through the entire life of the school known as the 
curriculum. The curriculum or course of study 
indicates the stages of mind growth corresponding 
to steps in the development of subject-matter. The 
curriculum-maker must take into consideration the 
evolution of mind and the evolution of subjects. 

The essential question is to adjust the various 
phases of subject-matter to such corresponding 
phases of mind activity that will neatly fit into the 
thought embodied in the subject. The logical 
order of subjects must again correspond to the 
psychological order of the growing mind. 

Primary and Advanced. — In primary grades 
the content of subjects should be shallow, but the 
extent, great. The lesson should be made concrete, 
observational and experimental. The child is 
introduced into the world of spirit through the 
concrete world of reality. In advanced work the 
extent should be narrow and the content deep. 
University students pursue few subjects but make 
a more profound study of their specialties. Accord- 
ing to Tompkins the common school deals with 
perceptions or individuals, the more advanced 
educational institutions, the understanding or gen- 
74 



THE CURRICULUM 75 

erals, and the university, reason or universals. 
The movement of the mind from the individual to 
the universal is the law of the learning The Law of 
mind and the law of the unfolding order Learning 
of knowledge. The lower phases of knowledge are 
mastered by the lower phases of mind and the 
higher phases of knowledge by the more mature 
mind. The curriculum is an arrangement of sub- 
ject-matter in the order of the development of the 
learning mind from the time the pupil perceives 
the individual until he is able through the dawn 
of reason to grasp the universal. 

All subjects (history, geography, mathematics 
and other studies) have their perceptive, imagina- 
tive and experimental phase adapted to the primary 
grades. As the child's mind unfolds into higher 
forms of judgment, reasoning and intuition, these 
same subjects must increase in generality and 
depth of meaning until they require the highest 
form of human thought and the keenest mental 
insight to grasp their intricate purport. 

Knowledge Related. — Dr. Edward Caird writes: 

"Thought is possible only as the relation of the thing thought 
of to the thinker, and an object of thought can only be known or 
enter into consciousness in relation to the thinking subject. " 

Not only is all human knowledge connected, 
science, literature, history and philosophy, but all 
reality is related to a thinkable reality. The thought 
in nature, in history, in man, in all things is not a 
thought which the human mind creates, but which 



76 THK EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

it discovers. TIk! reason or thoiiglit found in nature 
and art is a universal principle which binds human 
knowledge into one organic whole. It is impossible 
to know any one thing thoroughly without know- 
ing related ideas, thoughts and things. In the 
paraphrased language of Tennyson, — 

If we knew the flower in the crannied wall, we 
should know what God and man is. 

''From the very nature of thought," says Herbert 
SjxMicer, ''the relativity of our knowledge is infer- 
able." Every thought implies a distinction and 
relation, a likeness and a difference. The very idea 
of consciousness is possible only in the 

Consciousness . „ ii« ij. I'j. i 

form of a relation between a subject and 
object. Learning is the formation of a relation in 
mind parallel to a relation in the objective world. 
It logically follows that all knowledge is related and 
that thinking and thought can never express more 
than a relation. Knowledge is a life process since 
it is a continuous adjustment of internal relations 
to («xt(^rnal relations. 

The Principle of Correlation. — Correlation (concen- 
tration, coordination, interrelation) is a fundamental 
process in curriculum -making. It involves the 
principle of the relativity of knowledge and 
accepts the doctrine that all knowledge belongs 
to one organic whole. Correlation places subjects 
together in the curriculum that the universal 
content of (*ach may be thoroughly taught and 
thought. It emphasizes the fact that the world 



THE CURRICULUM 77 

of thought and the world of things are inter- 
related ideas. 

According to the doctrine of concentration the 
chikl to be educated determines in a large measure 
both the subject-matter and the method. The 
natural and social environments act upon Doctrine of 
the child and the child reacts upon these concentration 
external energies. The human mind is constantly- 
struggling to free itself by attaining the knowl- 
edge of the invisible, the truth of creation, the 
spirit of the world. All knowledge depends upon 
the activity of the mind through a thought process. 
A thought may be analyzed into elementary ideas. 
An idea is an interpretation of an external energy 
working through matter. All energy, cosmical 
and spiritual, has its origin in the Infinite and 
Eternal Energy. 

This Energy transmutes a resident force into all 
being. This force originates and externalizes quali- 
ties and properties of bodies. These physical 
attributes are next translated by the educational 
process into the thinking mind. The mind attains 
its freedom by cancelling its estrangement and 
returning to itself. 

The entire curriculum is based upon the investi- 
gation of the processes which take place in nature 
and in mind. Form is the manifestation of energy 
in nature and is the fundamental principle of all 
knowledge. The mental process of interpreting 
form is called observation. Size, weight, density, 
resistance, color, sound, odor, taste, and tactile 



78 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Thought- sensation are essential thought relations 
Relations found in all objects. By coming in con- 
tact with these attributes the child's intrinsic 
thought is developed and language is made a neces- 
sity. It, therefore, follows that teaching spelling, 
reading and composition is merely an incidental 
process in the evolution of the child's thought. 

In the construction of the curriculum, the center 

of correlation should not be history, literature, 

nor science, but the child. As the child 

The Child . . i /• n i i i n 

IS the central factor of the school, all 
subject-matter should be focalized in him. It 
should be so adjusted to the life of the child as to 
bring out what is best in him. The studies are best 
adapted to the evolution of the child's life which 
he loves best and which will do him the most good. 

Doctrines of the Curriculum. — Dr. William James 
suggests that there should be subjects devel- 
oping impression and others training in expres- 
sion. The educative process consists in a series of 
reactions following a series of receptions. It is a 
process of grafting a native reaction into some 
form of school life. Out of this evolutionary doc- 
trine of mental life flows the profound pedagogical 
principle — ''No impression without expression." 

Madame Campan changes this dichotomy into a 
trichotomy: ''First I saw, then I reflected, and 
finally I wrote." In other words there is a taking- 
in process, an inside process, and out-going process. 

Dr. R. N. Roark teaches that there are three 
operations of the mind: Acquisition, assimilation, 



THE CURRICULUM 7^ 

reproduction. The acquisitive processes are per- 
ception, conception, retention, and are cultivated 
by a study of nature, object teaching, the regular 
branches, and in the elements of all branches. The 
assimilative processes are conception, reasoning, 
imaging, willing, and are cultivated by a study of 
mathematics, language, history, civics, science and 
works of art. The reproductive process consists of 
the inner process of creation and the outer process 
of expression and is cultivated by a study of 
language, conversation, composition, declaiming, 
debating, and literary work in general. 

Dr. E. E. White would construct a course of study 
from presentative knowledge, representative knowl- 
edge, thought knowledge. ''A true course of instruc- 
tion for elementary schools cuts off a section of 
presentative, representative, and thought knowledge 
each year." According to his doctrine the mind 
through school life is gradually passing from 
sensation to reason. 

L. J. R. Agassiz indicates that the movement of 
mind in attaining knowledge is — first, observation; 
second, generalization; third, verification. Thomas 
Huxley says whatever is taught in the university 
should be taught in its elements in the primary school. 

Colonel Francis W. Parker, in his theory of 
concentration, places the child surrounded by 
energy and matter at the centre of his system. 
The central subjects of study which surround the 
child's life and in which he is intensely interested 
are physics, chemistry, meteorology, astronomy. 



80 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

geography, geology, mineralogy, history, ethnology, 
anthropology, zoology and biology. The modes 
of attention growing out of these central subjects 
are observing, reading, and hearing-language. At- 
tention is organically related with expression which 
is defined as a manifestation of thought and emo- 
tion. The modes of expression are gesture, writing, 
speech, drawing, painting, modeling, making and 
music. The two modes of judgment, form and 
number, are indispensable mental factors in the 
acquisition of knowledge. 

The Herbartians present many different courses 
of study based upon the principle of apperception. 
Herbart himself distinguishes three types of study: 
The merely presentative, the analytic and the 
synthetic. 

Ziller classifies school studies into those pertain- 
ing to man and those pertaining to nature. The 
humanistic group comprises history, literature, art 
and languages. The nature group consists of geog- 
raphy, natural history, physics, chemistry, arith- 
metic, geometry, practical exercises and gymnastics. 

Dr. William Rein of Jena coordinates the human- 
istic studies and the nature studies into a curric- 
ulum for his Practice School. The humanistic 
studies are historical instruction, art instruction 
and language. The nature studies are geography, 
natural history, arithmetic, geometry, practical 
work and gymnastics. 

Dr. Charles DeGarmo would build the curriculum 
out of humanistic, scientific and economic material. 



THE CURRICULUM 81 

The humanistic studies such as literature and history- 
have a distinct ethical content. The development of 
moral character now takes the place of Moral 

intellectual culture. These subjects reveal character 
the moral order of the world, which must flow into 
the life of the child. The scientific core has no 
ethical content but has high educational value. 
The economic group represents man in interaction 
with nature. It seeks practical ends and aims at 
physical freedom of the individual. 

Dr. Edward R. Shaw in his ''Outline of a Course 
of Study for Elementary Schools" uses each core 
as material from which are induced activities of 
arrangement and expression. In the humanistic 
group the materials are myths, tales, 
stories, descriptions, songs, poems and 
pictures. The induced activity of arrangement 
and expression growing out of this material are 
reading, language, spelling and drawing. In the 
scientific group the materials are land, water, sky, 
seasons, plants, animals, minerals and forms. The 
induced activities produced by this material are 
numbers, modeling, moulding, measuring and sing- 
ing. The materials of the economic group are food, 
clothing, shelter, industries, occupations and travels. 
The activities created by this material are writing, 
drawing, paper-folding, sewing, making, painting, 
buying and selling. 

Dr. William T. Harris has apparently solved 
the problem of the psychology of the curriculum. 
According to his analysis, there are five windows 
6 



82 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of the soul (subjective) to which correspond five 
groups (objective) of studies: First, mathematics 
and physics; second, biology; third, literature and 
art; fourth, grammar and language including 
logic and psychology; fifth, history and institutions. 
The curriculum should be built out of this material 
in such a manner that each group should be pre- 
sented at times to suit the development of the 
child. Each group of studies represents certain 
objective categories which develop certain internal 
laws of thinking. According to Aristotle there are 
ten objective categories: Substance, quantity, 
quality, relation, action, passion, where, when, 
posture and habit, which correspond to the develop- 
ment of the internal constitution of the human 
The mind. The categories are the predicates 

Categories ^g^j j^y ^]^^ j^jj^^ jj^ thinking the world 

of objective reality. To exhaust the categories 
in describing an object is to exhaust the possi- 
bilities of explanation. The categories, therefore, 
express the nature of thought and the nature 
of things. 

Arithmetic and geography involve a study of the 
categories of quality and quantity. Physiology 
adds the categories of action and relation and 
discusses the formative life principle. 
Grammatical study is a dual mental act: 
One directed to form and the other to content; 
one to the real, the other to the ideal; one to 
the sentence and the other to the meaning. In 
analyzing the English sentence, the mind is 



THE CURRICULUM 83 

ushered into the realm of logic and psychology. 
Dr. William T. Harris says: 

"The method of grammar leads to insight into the nature of 
reason itself; it is this insight which it gives us into our methods 
of thinking and of uttering our thoughts that furnishes the justifi- 
cation for grammar as one of the leading studies in the curriculum." 

Reading, penmanship and drawing externalize the 
inner man and reveal and portray human nature in 
its varied forms. The genetic principle of literature 
is life itself. It represents the soul striv- 
ing to realize its inherent worth. Pen- 
manship, drawing and art in general represent the 
highest functions of the human soul. History and 
civics reveal to man the consciousness of his own 
freedom. In these subjects the student is ushered 
into the realm of spirit itself. He is taught the 
nature and end of spirit to be freedom, and that this 
freedom is attained through the state, which is the 
terrestrial representation of spirit. 

The Ideal Curriculum. — The ideal curriculum 
should be so constructed that it will bring out what 
is best in the pupil. It should be flexible, adapted 
to the circumstances but constantly moving toward 
the idea of personal freedom. It should put stress 
upon relations and interconnection of studies and 
thereby unify, focalize and organize the child's 
knowledge. History should be corre- 
lated with geography and civics. There 
is an interconnection of ideas in these subjects 
and to understand one is to know the other two. 



s4 'I'lir: i<j)iJCATiONAi. riu)(:i<:ss 

( 'ompoHil-ion .should be t.-uj^lit in coniiccl/ion vvit,li 
ml.urc; Hliidy, j)i<'liji('.s, druwiii^i;, liisl-ory, l)i()|i;rjij)liy 
nnd litcrjil-urc. (lorrcl.'il/m^ ;in(i ini(UT(^laUn^ ar(^ 
not only |)(Mlji*z;o/j;i(*jil processes hut an) also pny- 
<du>l()<';i('aJ |)ro(',('ss('S. Tlic (*orr('l.'it,in<j!; process is 
vnliiJihle in l.lu^ const ruction of a curriculum 
because^ thinking is itself a relating j)roc(*ss. 

The i(l(ial curriculum cannot, he descrilxMl in terms 
of suhject-s enumerat.ed to accord with the doctrines 
of all educat.ois. A convent-ion of edu(^ators wer(i 
recently formulating m. course of study for Noriiuil 
Schools. ( )ne memher su^^'ested that sociolojjjy h(i 
(^iiii.MiiuiiiM suhstitutcd foi' some review work doni^ in 
(%H.Hi,uH,..i |,j^^ common branches; another would 
substitute a staidy of (Jreece, lloiiK^ and J*]n^land 
for the usu.'d textr-book in ^enernl history; still 
an()t,h(U' ur^'cd that, asti'onomy shouhl tak(^ the places 
of IiO;^ic; nnother educator would subst,it,ut(> ethics 
foF' Latin, (leiinnn or I'^remdi foi* trigonometry and 
HUrvciyinji; or (diemisti-y for (Ireek. 

To on(^ makinjj; a close study of this discussion, it 
seems that t,he men trained in sciiMice pref(>r sci(^n- 
ti(i<' subjects niid those ti'ained in metu'iphysics insist 
n„„, that Lo<i;ic and ethics belon«j; to the Normal 

Of Min.i S(diool curriculum. The particular bent of 

mind of the educator rathei" than the educational 
value of the subject may be t.ra,ced in all couises of 
study. 

Tlu^ ideal curiiculum can Ix' construct.ed only 
by the aid of psychology and |)hilosophy. Tlu^ 
linal i|U(\st.ion is whai effect has a «;iv(Mi subjec^t 



TIIK CURRICULUM 85 

upon iSOul development? If Logic will uuikv. a 
clearer thinker and create a higher spiritual de- 
V(;lo[)ment than astrononiy then it has a higher 
(educational vahice and should be preferred in the 
construction of a curriculum. 
Dr. Arnold 'rom()kins writes: 

"Since tlu5 f)U[)il ih to find hi.s true Hclf in the thought and spirit 
of the world ahout him, wfuitever Bubject rcfiectH in his conKciouH- 
neHH the widest reahn of that thought and spirit must liavc for liim 
the gnjatest vahie. " 

Educational psychology assists the curriculum- 
maker in determining th(i valu(; of a sub- Educndonai 
ject in terms of human development. ]t ^'''"'"' 

teac}i(\s that a giv(;n subject str(!ngth(;ns a given 
p()W(!r of mind. 

" I*iiiloHoj)liy d(!alH with the totahty of exfKirienee under the 
form of an organic system in harmony with the hiws of tiiought." 

SCUWKGLKU. 



THE SCHOOL PROCESS 

THE HUMANISTIC PROCESS 

VII. 

THE SOCIAL 

The school is created to give instruction, to un- 
fold the inner life, and to develop those broader 
phases of human growth known as the social, the 
a^sthetical and the ethical nature of man. The 
humanistic process not only strengthens the intel- 
lectual life but changes human potentiality into 
Humanizing human actuallty. The school process is 
Process dlstiuctly a humanizing process, because 

it extends beyond the domain of intellectual culture 
and trains the individual in the humanization of 
the race. Humanism Ib that science which softens, 
refines, civilizes and ameliorates the individual. 

The educational process is not wholly developed 
through a study of academic text-books. It has a 
broader sweep of thought and includes a develop- 
ment of the social, a^sthetical and ethical processes 
of human freedom. The school is a social institution 
and education is a socializing and humanizing 
process. The aesthetic process is humanistic, be- 
cause it pictures and portrays the myriad condi- 
tions of human nature. The highest phase of the 
humanistic process is ethical or moral culture. 
The ultimate problem in education is the character- 
forming process. 
86 



THE SOCIAL 87 

Social Science. — Educational science, in recent 
years, has become largely a social science. The 
educational process is not wholly psychological but 
intensely sociological. It adjusts the individual not 
only to his intellectual studies but also to his social 
environments. The psychological process 
in education is a means to the develop- Psy^houTjicTi 
ment of the individual social conscious- socioio^cal 
ness. Mental development, per se, is not 
the final aim in education. The intellectual life 
must have a social factor and the individual must 
be trained in the social function. The social life of 
the school should grow out of the home and com- 
munity life. The social life in which the child parti- 
cipates in the school has its origin in the social 
consciousness of the community. It is the purpose 
of the school to develop this stream of consciousness 
in such a manner that the child will live in an 
advanced stage of community life. 

Since the school is a social institution, it is neces- 
sary to understand the nature and meaning of 
society. In a course of lectures on The Laws 
'^The Sociological Process," Dr. A. W. ofs««i«ty 
Small, a few years ago, arranged the principles of 
society as follows: 

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETY. 

1. Society is composed of individuals and groups. 

2. Society is a many of individuals. 

3. Society is a process of perpetual compromises. 

4. Society is a play of attractions between the many which 
make up its functions. 



88 TITK KDUCATIONAL PIUKMOSS 

T). Soci(;(,y in a [)l;iy of roi)ulHi()nH lK!iw(!(!ri jKirHoriH in.'ikirifr; up 
iti) j)artH. 

6. Society in li H\,ii\,v. of coriHtaiil, (lo.^H'.ndi'.Jirx) of oru; j)Jirl, upon 
tho otlior. 

7. Soci(!ly JH a <u)nH(.urit, (ilTort, of ikhkoiih wlio an; s(;paratij in 
epaco and tliouj^li!, l,o npproacli :in<l lindcirHland (sach otJuT. 

8. So(;i<;l,y in a (•ornbin.'il.ion of ixuhofih oacli of wliorn is afflicted 
by the Harne (r<)n<iitionH wliicli inflm^ncx; all tlu; r(!Kt. 

0. SfK^'city is a pro(t(iHH of Hociali/irif^ llu) individual tnotulH'.rH. 

10. So(;iety is Uio (iXpniHHion of tin; Moc.ial conKcioiiHneHK of the 
ni(;rnl)(!rH whieh <;onipoHe it. 

11. Sociijty iH a HyHternatic; Hucriiwr, of nu^nilx^rK for irKiniherH 
and j)artH for j)artH. 

12. So(!i<!ty iH a prowiMH of |)uttin^^ justice into practice. 

'l'}i('S(^ fundjuncMlu'tl princ.if)l('s of social sci(^nce 
(explain llic r(;al iiaiijr(; of i\\v. social or7i;jinisni. 
'i'lic school is cornpos('(l of individuals not i8olai(;(l 
but ill groups. Tlic real natun; of lh(^ school is the 
coimimnity lif(! wliicli alTccis ili(! ilioii^ht, actions 
in.iivi.iiiuiH «^'><J cxpcri(!nc(; of Mic student body. Tlie 
Anci(;n,upH j^(.},(,(,i \^ the individual "writ lar^^^" for 
the purposes of doin^i; work. It is not th(^ individual 
[)Upil, but th(! pupil in tlu^ class and the pupil in 
t,he ^ra,de that rnM,ke up the school coinniunity. 

The school has that inherent power, that subtle 
spiritual forces which holds the orjz;anisin toj!;(^ther. 
Pu|)ils Htudyin^z; a corninon subject jtnd reciting a 
connnon lesson hav(; c(^rtain sympathies 
juid allinities for each otln^r. Oik^ pupil 
supplements anotlKU' and these two supplenuint the 
teacher. The social life of tin; school grows and 
develops in i)rof)ortion to the stnuigth and affinity 
found in tlie pui)il and in the teacher. 



THE SOCIAL 89 

The school is, however, not a sympathetic syri- 
tliesis, but an unsympathetic antithesis of teacher and 
pu{)il. The social principle is developed by teacher 
jostling pupil and pupil jostling t(iach(T. "Ev(Ty 
j)oint in (;very man's lif(; is relatcul to v.vory point in 
ev(!ry otluT man's lif(^" The pupils are dependent 
ui)on the; t(;ach(;r and th(^ teacher u[)on the pupils. 
As Colonel Francis W. Parker was wont to say: 

"l*]vory thiriR to holp and nothinp; to hinder." "ItoHporiiSibility."^ 

The; school is composcid of ''Many men of many 
minds." It is not thoroughly homogen(;ous but is 
mad(; up of heterogeneous individuals of various 
and varied ability. The school is a process of 
combining, organizing, and getting individuals to- 
g(!th(;r for the purpose of psychological and socio- 
logical training and culture. 

Th(; scdiool jjecomes an educatiomd solidarity 
when teacher and pupils are so thoroughly organized 
into a compact body, by the power of spiritual 
energy, that (;ach individual affects the K<iucationai 
social whoh; and the; organism or school Hoiuiarity 
community trains the individual. When a pu{)il 
enters a school ]w, is adjusted and socialized to his 
environments. Ih) is made to march to the music of 
th(5 social whoh;. The essential principle of the 
school and society in general is th(; fact that there 
exists between all human beings an affinity and 
relationship. Whatever relation affects one f)upil 
aff(;cts also another and the teacher included. 
This principle of sociology emphasizes the fact that 



90 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the school is an organism and whatever disturbs 
one part of the school life affects all the others. 

The Social Mind. — In a school of thirty pupils 
there are thirty-two minds; namely, thirty pupils, 
one teacher and one social mind. The social mind 
is the organized mind of all the pupils, about some 
principle of knowledge in which all the minds are 
thinking as one. In studying and reciting the 
Stamp Act all the minds of the class and the 
teacher are fused into an organic whole. 

Focalized 

Mental TMs Is the soclal mind which is the focal- 

ized mental energy upon the single idea 
or thought embodied in this historic event. The 
social consciousness is made up of the individual 
mind thinking common thoughts and expressing 
common ideas. The individual mind organizes 
ideas into a conceptual whole, as the social mind 
organizes the many ideas of many individuals into 
one social mind. Dr. A. W. Small says: 

"The content of social consciousness, and of the processes that 
take place in individual minds as causes and effects of the pre- 
vailing state of social consciousness, is pivotal in sociological theory." 

The school process now becomes a sociological 
process consisting of concessions and compromises. 
Herbert Spencer's principle is that: 

"Every man is free to do what he wills, provided he infringes 
not the equal freedom of any other man. " 

Pupils are permitted to act as they choose, 
provided they act right and in harmony with the 



THE SOCIAL 91 

spiritual nature of the school. Since the school 
is a social institution, the teacher must respect 
the rights of the pupils and pupils must respect 
the teacher. It is the law of any organism that 
the part serves the whole and that the 
whole exists in and through the parts. 
The principle of justice emphasizes the fact that 
the organic elements of the school — the teacher and 
the pupil — must be harmonized and socialized, 
adapted and adjusted to each other. For a school 
to increase in efficiency it must be the embodiment 
of the principle of justice, equality to all and special 
privilege to none. 

Studies Socialized. — The centre for correlating 
is not history, science nor literature but the social 
and psychological activity of the child. The fun- 
damental factors of social life are food, clothing 
and shelter. These should be made the centre out 
of which the school life should be evolved. History 
expresses the social life of the race, as it deals with 
social communities, social wholes and 

• 1 • • A 1 1 . <• 1 Social 

social situations. A clear analysis of the content 
history process reveals the fact that it is a 
sociological science. As science has grown out of race 
activities it is primarily a socializing factor. Nature 
study, the school-garden, the school-kitchen and the 
laboratory are helpful in the social development of 
the individual. These subjects are experimental and 
bring out what is best in the student by a process 
of mingling and intermingling of pupils during study 
period and the recitation. Language is not so much 



92 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

an expression of thought as a medium of social 
communication. An individual thinks and in his 
desire to express his thoughts he creates language. 
In teaching beginners language, reading and spell- 
ing, the social factor plays an important part. 
Arithmetic should be evolved out of the home life. 
Number should be taught by thinking and measur- 
ing objects connected with the child's social ac- 
tivities — food, clothing and shelter. Denominate 
numbers can be most effectively taught by entering 
into the social life of the child. He enjoys these 
activities so intensely that he learns arithmetic 
incidentally. Art, manual training and music 
have also large social factors. 

The recitation should be made a social clearing- 
house. A happy, joyous, social spirit should per- 
vade the recitation period. The teacher should 
kindly assist the pupils, the pupils should 
pleasantly help the teacher and each 
should cooperate for the social welfare of all. In 
developing the thought found in the lesson the 
pupil is at the same time attuned to the music of 
the social order of the class. 

The Social Centre. — The school should be made 
the social centre, the Hull House of the community. 
The socialism taught at this centre should be 
Socialism of iutcllectual, spiritual and moral. The 
The School social life of the school will usually be 
the social life of the community plus some ad- 
vanced principles of social reconstruction. To 
improve the social atmosphere of the school is to 



THE SOCIAL 93 

inject new ideals into the community life in which 
it is located. Around the school should cluster all 
those forces which tend to place society upon a 
higher plane. Among these uplifting influences are 
lectures, the library, the night school, educational 
associations and social reforms. 

The entire school-plant should be utilized for 
the purpose of disseminating knowledge, and in- 
jecting new ideals of life into the minds and hearts 
of the entire community. Out of this social centre 
should flow an irresistible stream of influences 
which shall submerge ignorance, superstition and 
degrading tendencies. 

Social Ideals. — Colonel Parker defines the school 
as society shaping itself. He would have the 
school to be an ideal community in which every 
pupil is an ideal citizen. Ideals are 
absolutely necessary for the attainment 
of the highest good. Colonel Francis W. Parker 
says: 

"An ideal determines every thing that enters into its realization." 

Education is a process of setting up ideals and 
by self-activity realizing them. It should be the 
purpose of the school to stimulate the pupil in such 
a manner that he will have no rest until he accom- 
plishes the highest ideals attainable in life. Some 
one has said that idealistic philosophy aims to 
unfold the mental faculties, cultivate the heart, 
promote self-activity, plant the seeds of altruism, 
transform thought and sweeten Ufe. 



94 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The school becomes a social ideal when the 

teacher has at heart the pupiFs success in a degree 

equal to that of his own; when the pupil aids the 

teacher and assists his fellow pupils to 

The School . 

A Social the extent that he would look after his 
own welfare, and when each individual 
of the school system — the trustee, the teacher, 
the pupil, the county and state superintendent 
and the National Commissioner of Education^ — 
looks after the welfare of the social whole with as 
much zeal and interest as his own personal success 
in life. 

The monadistic conception of the school makes 

each pupil independent of every other one. Each 

pupil is a monad, psychical in nature and exercising 

no influence. According to this doctrine 

Monadistic ... , i , x /• • , 

society IS an unnatural state of existence 
and individual instruction is better than class 
recitation. The monistic conception of the school 

makes every phase predetermined by the 

whole. It puts emphasis upon the unity 
of individual pupils and considers education a 
phase of social progress. The school process is 
monistic, having a unitary origin and aim, and 
teleological, because there is plan and purpose 

running through the entire organism. 

The organic conception of the school 
makes the relation between pupil and teacher 
an intrinsic one. A pupil has an individual exist- 
ence, it is true, but his real life is in and through 
his social relation, to other individuals. In the 



THE SOCIAL 95 

school there is an inherent relation existing between 
teacher and pupil and an inner end to be realized. 
The school develops from within and grows by 
internal adaptation of soul of pupil to soul of teacher. 
The end of the school brings it into existence, and 
forms its essential nature which is the freedom of 
the pupil. The school as an organism may be 
defined — "As a whole whose parts are intrinsically 
related to it, which develops from within, and has 
reference to an end that is involved in its own 
nature." 

The social relationship cultivated in the school 
has its abiding essence in the organic nature of 
mankind. An individual does not exist in this 
world in and by himself, but is always found in 
and through a relation to other human beings. 
According to the organic social conception gonial 

of the school a pupil never exists alone, ^^^'^ 

but always in community life. It is the law of any 
organism if one part suffers the whole suffers. If 
a pupil breaks the spiritual thread of the school the 
whole school feels the breach of harmony. We 
are told that man by nature is a social being 
and that the individual is an abstraction, and 
that the true reality is humanity. The social 
atmosphere of the school enlarges this humanity 
and causes the individual to follow the still small 
voice of an ideal life, whispering truth, beauty and 
goodness. 

Social Growth. — Education is a systematic proc- 
ess of training the growing mind plus an external 



96 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

process of adjusting the individual to his natural 
and social surroundings. All social growth is con- 
ditioned upon the ideas, thoughts and customs of 
our social environment. The social forces which 
surround the pupil are as impressive and educative 
as the intellectual factors of the school. He would 
be as idiotic as Kaspar Hauser, without coming in 
Human coutact wlth humau society. The pupil 
Society jg ^ spiritual being and must live, move 

and grow under the educative influence of human 
activities. The school, the class, the grade, the 
games and sports connected with school life are social 
forces which adjust the pupil to his proper sphere 
in the educational system. When a pupil first 
enters school he is required to act in harmony with 
the new social order as the psychological process 
begins. The sociological process must go hand in 
hand with the psychological. In connection with 
his mind culture he is socialized at the chapel, in 
the societies, in the class-room, and is made to feel 
he is a part of the social organism. His social 
growth is due to a process of adapting himself to 
the many complex relations found in the social 
whole of which he is a member. As his altruistic 
nature develops he gradually begins to look after 
the welfare of others in preference to himself. 

"Social progress is the continuous weakening of selfishness and 
the continuous strengthening of sympathy." 

Science teaches that all progress in life, physical 
and social, hes in the fact that there is a constant 



THE SOCIAL 97 

adjustment of equilibrium between the organism 
and its environments. John Fiske says: 

"The advance from indefinite homogeneity to definite hetero- 
geneity in structure and function is a leading characteristic of social 
progress." 

He further says : 

"In social development corporate life is more and more sub- 
ordinated to individual life. The highest social life is that in 
which the units have the greatest possible freedom." 

In his '^Cosmic Philosophy" he states social 

the law of social progress as follows: Progress 

"The Evolution of Society is a continuous establishment of 
psychical relations within the'Community, in conformity to physical 
and psychical relations arising in the Environment; during which, 
both the Conmaunity and the Environment pass from a state of 
relatively indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a state of relatively 
definite, coherent heterogeneity; and during which, the constituent 
Units of the Community become ever more distinctly individuated." 



VIII. 

THE .ESTHETICAL 

The humanistic process socializes the individual, 
adjusts him to his environment and prepares him 
for that higher phase of human growth and activity 
known as the aesthetic process. The pupil becomes 
conscious of his humanity by studying the beautiful 
embodied in the world of art. The study of art is 
a humanizing process because it reflects and pic- 
tures human beings in varied and multiplied forms. 
The pupil realizes his true worth by incorporating 
into his nature the works of art which represent 
his other and better self. This otherness is spiritual, 
the ideal life to be attained, and the whole aesthetic 
process consists in transforming the original nature 
of the individual into a higher spiritual freedom. 

The Beautiful School. — The school is beautiful 
when the spiritual forces move freely and are not 
in bondage to any energy found in the external 
organism. Any organism is beautiful when the 
inherent vital force triumphs over matter; when 
the creative energy produces an ideal tree, or work 
of art; and when for example the inner spiritual 
energy of the school governs and holds in subjection 
Organism ^hc outcr objcctivc couditious. A beauti- 
Beautifui f^j school is onc in which the teacher, 
pupil and subject-matter are harmoniously related 
and artistically adjusted in their interaction. If 
98 



THE ^STHETICAL 99 

the mechanical, external, objective school limits the 
free activity of spirit, the school is not beautiful. 
To make the school sesthetical, the spiritual process 
must dominate over the external factors, and the 
machinery must respond to the inner heart-beat of 
the organism. The organic unity between the 
teacher and the pupil must be the power-house 
which holds within its grasp all the external mechan- 
ism and sends a ray of beauty into every activity 
of the school. The spiritual energy holding the 
school together is a form of the beautiful which 
develops an important element in the child's nature. 
The purpose of the aesthetic process in the school 
is to cause the ego to see itself, recreate itself 
and rethink itself. The spiritual mirrors itself in 
the subjective school and externalizes itself in 
the objective school. The school is the self- 
reflection of the ego in the form of human insti- 
tutional life. 

The beautiful is born in the soul; it is the inner 
self unfolding itself; it is in essence spiritual. The 
spiritual functioning, as the beautiful has The 

a fundamental scission within itself, sep- Beautiful 
arates itself from itself internally and then external- 
izes itself. The beautiful is a sensible manifesta- 
tion of the ideal which, according to Dr. J. S. 
Kedney, inhabits matter and constitutes its verit- 
able essence. Hegel teaches that the beautiful is 
an immediate unity of the spiritual essence and an 
external form. It is the shining of an idea through 
a sensible medium; namely, a stone, a tone, color 



100 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

or poetry. The artistic takes on the appearance 
of the sensible in which is permeated the spiritual. 

The Process of Self=estrangement. — The educa- 
tional process consists in mind estranging it- 
self from itself and cancelling this estrangement, 
returning to itself enriched, realized and completed. 
Mind has the power of apprehending itself in its 
otherness and bringing back to itself what was once 
Function cstrangcd. It is this active principle 
Of Mind which lays hold on the spiritual in art 
and nature, and makes it a part of the souFs own 
being. The thinking mind identifies itself with its 
other self found in art and restores to itself this 
estrangement. It is the function of mind to main- 
tain its identity in its particular manifestations. 
Mind becomes satisfied, attains its freedom when it 
permeates all its products and makes them its own. 

J. K. F. Rosenkranz makes: 

"All culture must pass through these two stages — of estrange- 
ment and its removal." 

This principle explains the school process, the 
educational process, the teaching process and the 
evolution of the human mind itself. Mind is first 
absorbed in the objective world; secondly, it per- 
meates the world of art and nature and discovers 
that universal principle which it identifies as its 
Evolution other self. Mind recognizes in the beauti- 
of Mind f ^j ^ nature identical with itself and hence 
returns to itself. This self is reason, the essential 
element of both mind and the objective world. 



THE ^STHETICAL 101 

In the school, in art, in nature, the mind discovers 
its own essence, penetrates into its own being, identi- 
fies its own law in what seems to be an alien exist- 
ence. The school as an aesthetic process emphasizes 
the fact that education is determined by mind 
producing itself in some objective form and realizing 
itself by removing the estrangement and returning 
to its self. 

The Purpose of Art — Keats poetically asserts: 

"Beauty is truth, and truth is beauty, that is all you know on 
earth and need to know. " 

According to Matthew Arnold — To see things in 
their beauty is to see things in their truth. Emerson 
expresses the same fact: 

"Truth and goodness and beauty are but different faces of 
the same All." 

Goethe writes: 

"Beauty is inexphcable, it is a hovering and ghttering shadow, 
whose outline eludes the grasp of a definition. " 

Lotze in his outline of ^Esthetics defines the 
beautiful as — The appearance to an immediate 
intuition of a unity amongst those three powers 
(law, matter, idea) which our cognition is unable 
completely to unite. Plato said: 

"The beautiful is the splendor of the true." 
Browning has truly written: 

"We're made so that we love 
First when we see them painted, things we have passed 
Perhaps a hundred times nor cared to see. " 



102 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Wordsworth in describing the beauty of the 
rainbow artistically declares: 

"My heart leaps up when I behold 
A rainbow in the sky: 
So was it when my life began; 
So is it now I am a man; 
So be it when I shall grow old, 
Or let me die!" 

According to Thomas Huxley^ The man who is 

all morality and intellect, although he may be good 

and even great, is, after all, only half a man. In 

the mass of mankind the sesthetical 

Htixlcv 

faculty like the reasoning power and the 
moral sense, needs to be roused, directed, and 
cultivated, and I know not why the development 
of that side of his nature through which man has 
access to a perennial spring of ennobling pleasure 
should be omitted from any comprehensive scheme 
of university education. 

The purpose of art is to reveal to mankind all the 
possibilities slumbering within the human soul, to 
externalize the internal, to objectify the subjective, 
Purpose to carvc the spirit in marble, to paint 
^^^■"^ the soul on canvas, and to unveil the 

rhythmical spirit in song and verse. The aim of 
art is to express what is most profound in human 
nature, to liberate the richest intuitions of mind, 
and to soften, refine, purify, and ennoble the inner 
subjective man. Art portrays pains and pleasures, 
sentiments and sorrows, successes and failures. In 
art we see our selves objectified and our real self 



THE .ESTHETICAL 103 

compared with our ideal self. This has a tendency 
to lift us above the material possessions of this 
world into the realm of truth and righteousness. 

It has been said that art is not borrowed, stolen 
nor invented, but comes only by evolution. It is 
a struggle for expression of a voice that will not be 
stilled and cannot be hushed. Robertson once said: 

"What we want is not so much, not half so much hght for the 
intellect as dew for the heart.'* 

To live constantly in the presence of some master- 
piece of art as the ''Apollo Belvedere" or Raphael's 
''Transfiguration" is really dew laid upon Dew on 

the heart. One of the purposes of art is The Heart 
to still the storms of life and to keep us "In tune 
with the Infinite." The soul of the artist must be 
tuned to the celestial harmonies of the world for 
what he thinks, he portrays, and what he feels, he 
reveals in artistic form. 

The Ideal in Art. — The idea or ideal in art is 
the absolute self-determined spirit, the efiicient 
force of the world and the divine principle which 
realizes itself in the human soul. The nobleness, 
the excellence, the beauty in a work of art is a 
spiritual essence which manifests itself in the intel- 
lectual, moral and religious phases of mankind. 
These eternal principles are the essential Eternal 

characteristics of the human soul which P^ncipies 
externalize themselves in the social, aesthetical and 
ethical order of the school. What is truly beautiful, 
is ideal spirituality embodied in external form. It 



104 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

is not only poured into external form but returns 
from this outer manifestation into the inner con- 
sciousness of the individual. The beautiful springs 
out of the human soul and is rethought by the 
spectator or interpreter. In the aesthetic process, 
as in the school process, there are three essential 
elements: The creative human soul, the spiritual 
essence and the recipient mind. 

The first is the artist, musician, poet, sculptor, 
thinker, the original energy, the generative force 
which calls into existence a new production. The 
creative human being externalizes himself in some 
outer form and transforms reality into ideality. 
We see it in Homer battling with the gods, Eads 
spanning the Mississippi, Raphael painting the 
Madonna, Gray writing the Elegy or Bartholdi 
creating the Statue of Liberty. In each there is a 
stamp of individuality coupled with the spiritual 
essence. This spiritual force compels the individual 
thinker to utter his ideal self and thereby creates 
the artist, the poet, seer and philosopher. The 
product uttered is a combination of intellect, feeling 
and will and hence is a humanizing factor in civiliz- 
ation. The third principle in the aesthetic 
Esthetic process is the recipient mind, the spectator, 

Process 

reader, hearer, interpreter, who rethinks 
the art product and annuls the estrangement. The 
interpreter communes with the universal spirit by 
intuition, mediation and philosophical insight. 

The aesthetic process may be summed up as 
follows: First, the genetic energy; second, the 



THE ^STHETICAL 105 

object created and projected; and third, the recipi- 
ent mind communing with the individual soul and 
catching a spark from the universal creating ma- 
chinery. In studying any art production we begin 
with what is immediately presented and then seek 
to ascertain its meaning. The external appearance 
is not the essential factor in a work of art. The 
internal significance is what animates the outer 
form. The aesthetic process consists in the inner 
self unfolding itself into an outer manifestation 
which bears the universality and essentiality of 
the involved idea. 

Classification of Art. — Art is classified upon the 
relation of the embodied ideal to the material 
in which it is represented. There are two world 
elements whose intermixture creates the various 
forms of art; namely, the individual and the 
universal, form and content, appearance and reality, 
existence and essence, phenomenon and noumenon, 
substance and activity, finite and infinite, expres- 
sion and thought, matter and spirit, seen and un- 
seen, real and ideal, object and creative energy. 

In symbolic art matter predominates over mind. 
The spiritual is weighed down by the corporal. 
It becomes lost in the material, struggles to free 
itself, but cannot think itself aloof from symbolic 
the physical. Architecture with its *' silent ^""^ 

earnestness and oriental sublimity" is an example 
of symbolic art. It does not represent the idea 
perfectly, but only an adumbration of it, and has 
been called '^frozen music and a petrified prayer." 



106 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Symbolic art strives in vain to discover pure con- 
ceptions and merely paves the way for a more 
adequate presentation of the ideal. The following 
are examples of different types of architecture: 
The Library of Congress, Italian Renaissance; 
Parthenon, Doric; Athenian Acropolis, Ionic; West- 
minster Abbey, Gothic. 

In classic art the spiritual and the material, the 
ideal and the real are presented in equal proportions. 
Spirit incarnates itself in stone and bronze and 
matter becomc^s merely a vehicle of thought. 
Praxiteles is said to have permeated the marble 
with the moods of his own soul. The human form 
is the most adequate expression of the embodiment 
of spirit, but sculpture cannot unveil the innermost 
powers of the human soul. It is the function of 
Romantic art to penetrate into the secret recesses 
of the human spirit and to portray the infinite 
Classic possibilities of mind. In classic art there 

^""^ is a conflict between spirit and nature, 

the ideal and the real which tension is the law of the 
school and the law of the universe. Sculpture 
pictures most accurately the perfect harmony of 
the spiritual and sensuous, gives fixed forms and 
creates what are called eternal models. Egyptian 
sculpture symbolizes the spiritual struggling to free 
itself from the natural as seen in the sphinx. The 
ideal sculpture of the Greeks attained its highest 
conception in the forms of gods which represent 
universal characters, as Zeus, the father of the 
gods; Apollo, the leader of the muses, and Athena, 



THE ^STHETICAL 107 

the goddess of wisdom. The gods of classic art 
were seen in stone and wood, but did not exist in 
flesh and spirit. *'As soon as reason had compre- 
hended God as spirit, there appear other ideas, 
other sentiments, other demands which ancient art 
is incapable of satisfying, to which it cannot attain, 
which called, consequently, for a new art and a new 
poetry. " This new form of art is known as Romantic 
or Christian. Eight examples of classic art are 
found in the rotunda of the Library of Congress 
which represent as many characteristics of civilized 
life and thought: religion, commerce, history, art, 
philosophy, poetry, law, science. 

In romantic art (painting, music, poetry) mind 
and spirit predominate, matter and phenomena 
retire. Mind struggles above matter and represents 
the real life of the soul. Spirit frees Romantic 
itself from nature, retires into itself and ^^^ 

finds its true inner harmony. Beauty of form is 
now superseded by beauty of spirit. We are now 
in the realm of Christian art in which the human 
soul lifts us upward toward God. 

Painting expresses the innermost depths of the 
soul, its joys, sufferings and conflicts. It portrays 
the inner subjectivity of the spirit, the inner religious 
world and the scenes of nature and human 
life. Whatever may take place in the 
human heart or soul may become the subject in 
painting. Painting exhibits the inner essential 
nature of the soul as it pours forth its longings and 
yearnings into an outer beautiful form. 



lOS Tlir: EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

There iirv. iniiny }){iintings of int(nise (Hlucational 
significanc(^ in the Congn^ssional Library: ''Wis- 
dom" is liolding a tablet; "lJn(l(^rstaiiding." a 
eoMKroHMMumi ^('roll ; '' Kiiowlcdge, " a l)0()k; 'Thiloso- 
j>ii,rnry ^^j^^ n .^j-^j, ,jj(,., .^ nifh^'livt; attiiudc. The 

fiv(; woiru^n synibolizliig th(i five s(uis(;s arc; unicjucr. 
"Taste" is d?-inking from a sliell; "Sight" is look- 
ing into a mirror; "Smell" is enjoying the fra- 
gancc of a rose;; "Hearing" is listening to the 
mnrmuring slu^ll; "Touch" is c()ntem[)lating a 
biillcrdy. 'J'lu; sciences an; r(;i)res(;nted by female 
figures of (;x(|uisite beauty Miid most interesting 
synd)olism: "Zoology" is clad in the skins of 
animals; "i'hysics" holds a torchlight of investi- 
gation; "Mathematics" is illustratcul by a nude 
figure; representing "the naked truth"; "Geology" 
stands upon a mountain gath(;ring sp(M*imens; 
" Ar(diau)l()gy " is deciphering tlu; n^cord of an old 
book; "]k)tany" is standing u})()n a water lily 
analyzing its blossom; "Astronomy" stands upon 
th(; (;ai-tli, with drapery repres(;nting the heavenly 
bodi(*s; "Chemistry" is synd)oliz(Ml by the glass 
retort and hour-glass. 

Poetry is the most spiritual form of romaidic art. 
It is tin; artistic expression of spirit realizing its 
freedom and is no longer in touch with the sensuous 
world. The genetic j)rincij)l(; of poetry 
is lif(^ itself, and illustrates the soul 
struggling to free; itself from bondage. Poetry 
disturbs the i(h'nl, loosens the bonds and creates 
within th(^ indivi(hinl a longing for s})iritual free- 



THE ^STHETICAL 100 

dom. Tho constructive energy of literature is the 
soul in constant stress to realize its true; nature. 
Lit(^rature is a form of self-rc^alization b(u;ause it 
assists the individual in casting off his slu^ll and 
attaining his true worth. It awakens within the 
individual a consciousness of his many limitations 
and idealizes befon^ him a life worthy to be realized. 
The chief function of literature is to liberate the 
human soul and to assist it in gaining its inherent 
worth. Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Goethe 
are four great literary writers who have portrayed 
in artistic form the inner creative activity of the 
human soul and as Aristotle says — ''have to do 
with what is universal." 

Music is a form of art which gives expression to 
the inward consciousness of the soul. It annihilates 
form and gives expression to the longings, y(;arn- 
ings and aspirations of the spirit within, 
and has been called spiritual existence 
put in motion. Music is spiritual because; it is the 
soul that sings and inspires the listener as no other 
work of art. It is the function of music to assist 
in spiritual freedom by giving expression to the 
thrill of the soul in outer vibrations of tones and 
by contrasting the cold intellect with the joyous 
emotions. It awakens the innermost chords of life, 
expresses in sound the activity of spirit, sweetens 
the disposition, tempers the soul, fashions it according 
to the laws of rhythm and harmony, calms the 
emotions, liberates the soul, and transforms it into 
the realm of a purer and sweeter atmosphere. 



110 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The most progressive educators are recommend- 
ing the master productions (the great symphonies, 
the oratorios, and operas) to be reproduced in school 
to develop the pupiFs aesthetic nature. For students 
to hear, love and appreciate Beethoven's ''Moon- 
light Sonata" is to be elevated to a higher life of 
beauty and to be tuned to the celestial harmonies 
of the world. To illustrate the profound significance 
of such a work of art upon the human soul. Dr. 
William T. Harris suggests the following interpre- 
Mooniight tation: The ''Moonlight Sonata" was 
Sonata written by Beethoven when he was 

recovering from a disappointment in life. The first 
movement is soft and floating and portrays the 
soul musing upon a memory which deeply affects 
it. The surrounding is dim, as seen in moonlight, 
and the soul is lit up by a reflected light at the 
memory of a past bliss. On account, of this feeling 
of borrowed light the Sonata in C Sharp Minor has 
been called by Americans "The Moonlight Sonata." 
Sadly the soft gliding movement continues and 
more distant grows the prospect of experiencing 
again the remembered happiness. Only for a mo- 
ment can the throbbing soul realize its dreams and 
the plaintive Minor changes to Major. At the 
remembrance of renunciation the soul is plunged 
into grief and despair, a sepulchral echo comes from 
the base and all is stilled. 

In the next movement Beethoven realizes, "We 
must separate. Farewell." The musical phrase 
expressing this thought lingers in its striving to 



THE .ESTHETIC AL 111 

shake off the grasp and get free. The hands will 
not let each other go. The phrase runs into the 
next and back to itself and will not be cut off. 
In the trio, there seems to be the echoing of sobs 
that comes from the depths of the soul as the sorrow- 
ful words are repeated. The buried past still 
comes back and holds up its happy hours while 
the shadows of the gloomy future hover before 
the two renunciations! This movement is very 
short and is followed by the Finale. *^No grief 
of the soul can be conquered except through 
action/' says Goethe, and Beethoven expresses 
the same sentiment, and in the third movement 
the soul is depicted in endeavoring to escape 
from itself and to cancel its individualism through 
contact with the real. 

In the first movement of the Sonata, Beethoven's 
soul is involved with Julia. She does not reciprocate 
his devotion and her renunciation leaves his soul 
devoid of that universality that it would have 
obtained had she reciprocated his love. Hence the 
soul must find surcease of sorrow through action, 
through will or practical determination. How 
fiercely the soul rushed into the world of action in 
the Finale! Beethoven plunges through life, now 
and then overcoming sorrow and grief and now and 
then swooning beneath the weight of sorrow for 
his lost love. The lost chord of his devotion oc- 
casionally reverberates a minor tone through his 
soul, but he awakens from his dream and drowns 
his sorrow in action. 



112 TIIJ^] EDUCATIONAJ. PROCESS 

To study such a classical production and to 
listen to its music are of intense value to pupils 
and pedagogical students. They are given a true 
ciaHsicai insight into the creative spirit of art 
Productions productious and are enabled to appro- 
priate unto thenis(;lves the universal i)rinciples of 
art creations. The aspiring pedagogical student 
should be familiar with at least the following great 
musical productions: Beethoven — Sonata Pathet- 
ique Op. 13; Variations in C Minor; Rondo in G 
Minor; Turkish March; Sonata Impassionata, Op. 
57. Ch()})in — Sonata in B Flat Minor; Fantasie 
in F Minor. Ilandel — The Harmonious l^lack- 
smith. Bach — Chromatic Fantasie and Fugue in 
1) Minor. Haydn — Fantasie in C Minor. Mozart — 
Variations in F Major. Liszt — Rhapsodies. Wagner 
— Deatli of Love. Rubinstein — Valse Caprice. 
Mendelssohn — Songs without Words. 



IX. 

THE ETHICAL 

The ultimate purpose of the humanistic process 
of the school is to make the pupil ethical. In addi- 
tion to the intellectual, social and sesthetical 
processes found in the school there is also Moralizing 
a moralizing process into which the pupil Process 

must now be introduced. To develop character, 
to strengthen the individual moral nature, to tone 
up the child's ethical ideals, constitute the final 
purpose of the humanizing process of the school. 
To humanize is to soften, to make gentle, to refine, 
to civilize and to give character to individuality. 
The school must lead the child beyond the domain 
of the intellectual, beyond the realm of the social 
and sesthetical into the highest department of 
culture known as the ethical. 

The Pupil Ethical. — The school now assumes 
its highest function of transforming the pupil's 
original nature into an ideal nature. Any educative 
process is moral — when it develops the human 
soul; when it stirs up the inner, subjective nature 
of the individual; when it gives the pupil an aspira- 
tion and ideal for higher hfe. It is truly an ethical 
process to teach a lesson in such a manner that the 
pupil can see in it his other self. To see in a history 
lesson his ideal self and to touch the spiritual 
chord in a poem is as much an ethical process as 
8 113 



114 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Ethical "to develop the will. Ethical training 

Training shoulcl stimulatc the whole soul of the 
individual. To train a pupil in forming accurate 
judgments, to drill him upon the facts of science is 
ethical, because it gives the pupil an upward tend- 
ency in life. To demonstrate the Pythagorean 
theorem is as truly moral as to understand and 
realize the inner nature of history or to absorb the 
spiritual content of a poem. The joy of a lesson 
learned, of a proposition in geometry demonstrated, 
or of a syllogism of logic understood, affects the 
whole ethical nature of the pupil. Whatever 
touches the intellect, whatever arouses the will, 
whatever disturbs the emotional nature and what- 
ever tones up the entire being, is an ethical act in 
teaching. 

The Law of Ethics. — The ultimate law of ethics 
affirms that the self-active mind must not contradict 
itself and that no artificial stimulus is necessary 
to cause a pupil to study, to think, to learn. Dr. 
Arnold Tompkins asserts that when a pupil is 
studying for a prize, rather than for the thought 
in the lesson, he is practicing deceit with his own 
thought processes which is as immoral as to prac- 
tice deceit with his neighbor. According to this 
great educational thinker it is entirely wrong to 
introduce per cents or an examination as a stimulus 
The Mind bctwecn the pupil and the subject studied 
Learns f^j. j^ jg jy^ dircct oppositiou to the 

learning process. The mind learns by struggling 
directly with the thought of the subject and by bring- 



THE ETHICAL 115 

ing itself into a living relation with the thoughts 
and ideas of the lesson to be learned. The child 
through his own self-activity strives to attain the 
thought of the lesson; he is hungering and thirst- 
ing after the spirit of the universe. To interfere 
with this self-activity would place the pupil in a 
wrong attitude toward truth and would, therefore, 
be an immoral act. 

The school is an educational institution for 
training the pupil into positive ethical relations. 
The institutional pupil is taught to see in 

^ ^ ° Doctrine 

his fellow pupil his ideal potential self of school 
and that he must subordinate his indi- 
vidual self to the larger life of the school. The 
true pupil loses his life in the school for the good 
of others and thereby realizes his true self, for — 

"He that findeth his hfe shall lose it." 

He must gradually be led to see that reason is 
the inherent principle of the school and the funda- 
mental basis of his own nature. He attains spiritual 
freedom by adjusting his life to the inner life and 
thought of the school. 

Altruism is a method of thought, a process of 
self-realization, a rule of action, a law of control 
and one of the deepest principles in human nature. 
As a law of life egoism comes before altruism, for 
a creature must live before it can act. However, 
altruism is just as essential, for a being cannot 
exist without depending upon others. Egoism and 
altruism are coessential, as living for others is a 



116 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

process of living for self. The doctrine of the school 
should be founded upon the moral principle — ^' Thou 
shall love thy neighbor as thy self. ^^ 

As a child must exist before it acts, egoism 
precedes altruism; otherwise there would be no 
self to help another. However, what one is physi- 
cally, mentally and morally depends as 
Versus much upon others (altruism) as upon self 

(egoism). All human conduct which 
grows out of attention wholly to self or wholly to 
others will certainly be dcificient of an essential 
element. Self-sacrifice and self-preservation are 
inherent tendencies of life. It is nevertheless man's 
prerogative to live in and through beings other 
than himself. Altruism is said to be the name of 
a tendency and may b(^, therefore, physical, psychi- 
cal or social. It is tlu^ intent and not the result that 
makes the deed altruistic. If for sc^lfish purposes 
1 do good to others, I am no less an egoist although 
I have made otlu^rs happy. If my property is 
destroyed and I cannot pay my debts, I am no less 
an altruist although I cannot meet my obligations. 
It is, therefore^, the intent which makes the act moral. 

There is a constant conflict between egoism and 
altruism. It is the educator's imperative duty to 
ascertain wdiich is the law of the school and which 
is the law of lifi^ Kant would say: 

" Nothing h1u)uI(1 ite done which wo could not see done universally. *' 

Schopenhauer claims that pity is the foundation 
for v'liihi conduct and affirms: 



THE ETHICAL 117 

"In pity a man comes to a sense of the real oneness in essence 
of himself and his neighbor, " 

He implies that an individual directly recognizes 
in others his own, true, ideal self. 

The school like the plant and animal has an 
inner law and life. The ideal perfection of its nature 
is a potentiality hidden within which realizes itself 
by its own self-productive activity. The school is 
not a blind force in contact with another blind 
force, but a deep struggle with reason and an 
immanent warfare within. It is a tension school 

between the actual and the ideal, between Tension 
what a pupil is and what he should become. It is 
the very essence of school as it is of mind itself to 
be divided against itself, to win its ideal freedom 
by an internal struggle. Man rises out of the life of 
nature, by means of a School, into a moral atmos- 
phere; by means of the State, into civil freedom; 
by means of the. Church, into a religious life. 

The Moral Process. — That which makes one 
a moral being is a universal essence which tran- 
scends the particular. Thought and reason consti- 
tute the universal element of mankind; 

. . Individual 

appetite and desire are the particular. versus 

Thought and reason are constantly at 
war with appetite and desire. The object of desire 
is the particular while the end of reason is boundless. 
It is reason and intelligence that make an individual 
moral. The pupil grows into a moral life by trans- 
forming his lower self into a higher one. There is 
a moral order in the school which must flow into 



118 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the pupil's life if he realizes the perfection of his 
being. The school attains moral perfection when 
the pupil loves and obeys others as he would him- 
self. The individual and universal Hfe are now 
unified and moral freedom attained. The child in 
school is so organically related with the moral 
atmosphere of the school that very soon he identi- 
fies himself with the moral life of the race. The 
pupil attains moral perfection when his universal 
nature controls and transforms his lower life. Dr. 
John Caird in working out this ethical doctrine 
defines morality as the identification of the individ- 
ual with the universal life, the surrender of the 
private to the social self. He finds in the moral 
life the solution of the contradiction between the 
natural and the spiritual, the actual and the ideal, 
the individual and the universal nature of man. 

In the school process the child has duties to 

himself, duties to pupils, and duties to God. These 

are not absolute distinct functions, for a duty to 

God involves a duty to self and others 

Duties 

also. In fact these three forms of duties 
are interrelated and correlated. It is the pupil's 
duty to self to offer to the moral atmosphere of the 
school, a clean perfect body, to perform assigned 
tasks joyously and cheerfully, and to assist in 
elevating the moral tone of the school. The pupil 
must at all times obey the law of truth and integ- 
rity and live in harmony with the divine idea. 
The test of a pupil's moral nature, however, lies in 
his relationship with his fellow pupils. He must 



THE ETHICAL 119 

not only live in accordance with the moral 
ideal but he must assist others in growing and 
developing into the highest ideals known to human 
beings. 

As the ethical process is so important in the thought 
and structure of the school, it is necessary to make 
a brief study of the origin and nature of the ethical 
concept. The origin of the ethical idea 

•11 . • . Origin of 

is one with the origin of knowledge itself. Ethical 

There are four schools of ethical thought, 
the intuitional, the transcendental, the utilitarian 
and the evolutional which discuss the ethical con- 
sciousness. According to the first and second 
schools, ethical ideas are intuitive; according to 
the third and fourth, empirical. 

The intuitional school regards the ethical concept 
innate, a matter of pure intellection or a faculty 
of sensing the right as one would an apple blossom. 
Modern intuitionalism combines the intel- 

, , , , j« 1 1 , 1 1 Intuitionalism 

lectual and emotional element and makes 
conscience a synthesis of these two factors. Accord- 
ing to this doctrine there is slumbering within the 
principle of oughtness. Kant's categorical imper- 
ative is the corner-stone of the intuitional school. 
There spontaneously arises within the soul an obliga- 
tion to do or not to do a thing to which reason 
makes no appeal. It is claimed by the advocates 
of this doctrine that the ethical consciousness is 
universal and, therefore, possessed by all persons. 
It is ''the moral law within" that guides and 
experience is not necessary to teach us ethical ideas. 



120 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

According to the transcendental theory, moral 
consciousness is a phase of the eternal reason found 
Transcen- i^ and through all things. Transcen- 
dentaiism dcntalism teaches that the world, man, 
nature, history, science, art, religion and all being 
are manifestations of the eternal consciousness. 
That conduct is best which most perfectly mirrors 
the mind of the Supreme Being, the creative and 
sustaining power of all that is. It is the duty and 
privilege of each person in the world to realize his 
possibilities, and try to transform his real into his 
ideal attainment. The ethical axiom of this school 
is, "Be a person, and respect others as persons. '^ 
This doctrine is usually stated as the law of self- 
realization. 

Each pupil in developing his own personality 
should assist every other pupil because each in- 
dividual consciousness is related to that eternal 
consciousness which is the source of all life and 
thought. There is within the school a social soli- 
darity and also an ethical solidarity of pupils based 
upon the profound principle of the unity of 
mankind. 

The utilitarian doctrine discusses the good rather 
than the right, and regards ethical ideas as a result 
of experience. According to one thinker conduct 
utiii_ should be regulated and harmonized with 

tarianism ^^le plcasurcs of the sensibilities and ac- 
cording to another the pleasures should be refined 
and guided by prudence. Pleasure must result in 
conduct which is conducive to the greatest happi- 



THE ETHICAL 121 

ness to the greatest number. These pleasures are 
intellectual and moral and lead to the development 
of the total single self. 

The theory of evolution teaches that conduct is 
due not to individual but to race experience. As 
every act is designed to fulfill a certain end in life, 
the ethical concept is the result of a long 

. Evolutionism 

series of evolutionary changes. Society 
is an organism made up of many individual cells 
and the healthy condition of the whole depends 
upon the ideal condition of each person making up 
the organism. The bond of union of the evolution- 
ist is organized human life, while that of the trans- 
cendentalist is spiritual unity. According to the 
former — ''We are born not into a chaotic crowd,, 
but into an organized army, and we must learn to 
keep step and rank and to obey orders. " According 
to the latter — ''The ethical ideal is a will to know 
what is true, to make what is beautiful.'' 

An Ethical Organism. — Whatever may be the 
origin and nature of the ethical concept, the school 
is a moral institution and has for its final purpose 
the training of pupils into a positive ethical life. 
The individual pupil realizes his highest type of 
moral perfection in the social whole and attains 
moral worth only in mingling with his fellows in 
the school community. The true pupil is the ra- 
tional pupil made so in the school as an organic 
whole. The rational order of the school flows into 
the life of the pupil and creates within him a desire 
to live in the highest good. 



122 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The ultimate aim of the school process is to trans- 
form the potential spiritual pupil into an actual 
idealized oughtness. Besides intellectual, social 
and aesthetic culture the school's highest function 
is to develop the individual's moral consciousness. 
Morality is not what a pupil is, what he 
might be, what he could be, — but, what 
he ought to be. This ought-to-he is not merely a 
wish-to-he but a determination to accomplish some- 
thing worthy of the highest ideal in life. It is not 
what an individual is that is essential, but what he 
hopes to become that determines his aim in life. 
A natural law is a law that is, but a moral law is 
a law that ought to be. The categorical imperative 
means that we must do what is right when we know 
what is right and the ancient thinker is correct in 
asserting that knowledge is virtue. As there are 
certain categories in the intellectual life which 
belong to all human beings, so are there certain 
universal moral principles which guide human 
conduct. 

The ethical organism looks after the conduct and 
happiness of pupils and trains them to live in har- 
mony with the ideals of life. It sets up a moral 
Moral standard and inculcates moral principles. 

standard rpj^g moral llfc of a school should be the 
moral life of a community plus a high standard of 
perfection to be realized in the educational process. 
Pupils should be lifted up into a higher life of moral 
responsibility and made to live in conformity with 
the highest types of human progress. Each lesson 



THE ETHICAL 123 

and each recitation should make the pupil ethical 
through intellectual facts, through volitional train- 
ing and through emotional aspirations. The pupil 
becomes moral by living in and through the ethical 
organism which administers to the pupil's highest 
aspirations of life. 

School Ethics. — The school interprets and ap- 
plies ethical ideas in a manner peculiar to its nature 
and function. The teacher must understand the 
motive and intention of a pupil and govern him 
through a knowledge of his habits, character and 
former conduct. School duties must be regulated 
in such a way as to create school happiness. 
No school is successfully taught that does 
not make the children happy and that does not 
send a thrill of joy through each. Happiness ethics 
is school ethics, and the greatest happiness to the 
greatest number is a pedagogical maxim worthy 
of consideration. 

''Politeness is to do and say the kindest thing 
in the kindest way," and is one of the deepest 
principles of the school because it recognizes in 
other pupils the ideal potential self. True polite- 
ness in school recognizes the worth of 
each individual pupil and seeks to help 
others to become ideal in character. The teacher 
must be polite to pupils, pupils must be polite to 
the teacher and fellow pupils and each 
recognize in the other an organic part of 
the school whole. Order is not only the first law 
of heaven, but the first requisite of a successful 



124 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

school. School discipline should not come from 
without, but from within, in the teaching process. 
To teach to govern is a better law than to govern to 
teach. Good government can be secured only by- 
loving the profession, and having an interest in the 
subjects taught and the children to be educated. 
Truthfulness is one of the essential school 

Truthfulness . , ., . i i • i x i. 

Virtues as it cements and binds teacher 
and pupil together into one organic unity of thought 
and action. For a pupil to practice deceit in school 
is paving the way to practice deceit in business, 
in politics, in the professions and in all the voca- 
tions of life. The pupil must be taught obedience 
to the law of the school and thereby 
obedience to the teacher. In obeying the 
inner nature of the school the pupil is obeying 
himself for the school is an expression of the pupil's 
better self. The teacher must set forth the doctrine 
that self-sacrifice is the law of self-realization and 
that pupils must be taught to sacrifice their own 
pleasures in the school for the happiness of others. 
Self. One of the chief school virtues is honesty 

Sacrifice ^f purposc IB. thc daily work. Honesty 
in the preparation of work is as good policy in the 
school as it is in life. 

Industry is one of the chief school virtues while 
idleness and inattention are disorganizing factors in 
every recitation. A good school is one 
in which each pupil is actively engaged 
in some form of work and one in which the incen- 
tive to work is found in the subjects taught and not 



THE ETHICAL 125 

in some external matter. The teacher who inspires 
the pupil to work for the work's sake and not for 
per cents or prizes has attained a maximum of 
skill in his profession. The teacher who has the 
ability to inspire the pupil to long for truth and 
righteousness and to have no peace but in the 
pursuit of them has attained a high standard in 
the profession of teaching. 

The pupil must be taught self-respect, self- 
control, and self-restraint. He is an element of 
the social and ethical organism and must deny 
himself pleasures and happiness, for the Seif. 

sake of others. Justice prevents pupils control 

from infringing upon the rights of others and is a 
universal form of morality, because, it prefers the 
general good to individual happiness. In every 
recitation each pupil must respect the 
rights of others and subordinate his own 
desires and wishes. for the good of others. Egoism 
and altruism are ultimate ethical principles and 
express the rational order of the school. These 
coessential principles and rational freedom have 
been discussed in a previous chapter. 

Self-realization is the aim in ethics and education. 
The end of life must be a development in character 
— perfection rather than happiness. The true self 
can be realized only by sacrificing the Seu. 

lower self. The final problem in ethics ^e^i'^^tion 
and the ultimate aim in education must be tested 
in terms of the realization of the rational self. 
The supreme law of every educational process is 



126 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

to make the best of self possible. The pupil is to 
develop his own personality to the fullest extent 
and in doing so he is to assist in the development 
of other personalities associated with him. The 
duty to self and duty to others are coordinated by 
the profound world principle that each individual 
pupil is a part of the eternal consciousness and that 
pupils are fellows by virtue of a common relation 
to the Infinite Mind. 

The Moral Life. — All educators agree that the 
end and aim of the educational process is moral 
culture. Teachers are not satisfied with facts 
Moral learned, the taste cultivated, and the 

Culture intelligence trained, but seek to develop 

the pupil into a noble character. A pupil may have 
a keen and discriminating perception, a memory 
stored with the fundamental truths of nature and 
human nature, a clean, cold, logical intellect, but 
if the moral life has not been strengthened, the 
highest ideal of the school has not been attained. 
To realize moral perfection, the inner spiritual life 
of the child must be attuned to the moral order of 
the world, the heart must be made to beat in unison 
with divine harmonies and the soul made to respond 
to the noblest ideals of human growth, human 
culture and human freedom. 

Whatever sharpens the intellect, whatever arouses 
the emotion and whatever develops the volitional 
nature, increases the moral capacity and gives 
stamina to moral character. While every well- 
regulated school enlarges the moral life, while all 



THE ETHICAL 127 

good teaching is ethical, and while any subject 
taught in a correct manner affects the moral worth 
of the individual, literature is especially valuable 
to help the pupil form high ideals of life. We 
know what we are, but literature teaches us what 
we ought to be, and the strongest impulse to 
improvement is to become dissatisfied with our 
present, real self in comparison with the future 
ideal self. The ideal self is not an ignis -P^e 

fatuus, but the soul's consciousness of its Weaiseif 
possibilities through a determined choice and a 
preserving activity. Ideals in literature elevate 
the soul, animate and thrill us with a desire to 
know truth and to act it in our daily lives. By 
means of poetic inspiration, the student is made to 
feel the beauty, truth and pathos of physical nature, 
and human life is given an insight and yearning 
for the divine ideal. He is saturated with things 
that are true, things that are honest, things that 
are just, things that are pure, and made to think 
on these things that are the flower and fruit of 
human freedom. 

To teach "Crossing the Bar" in a manner to touch 
the inner life of the pupil is not to chop it up into 
preparation, presentation and application and the 
rest, but to inspire the pupil with the faith, hope 
and love of the production. The pupil must real- 
ize that the star, bar, sea, twilight, bell, are sym- 
bols of a higher life that fill and thrill the soul. 

The moral life is not the full and complete life, 
but it is the necessary approach to the religious 



128 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

life. According to Dr. Edward Caird, man by the 
very constitution of his mind has three ways of 
thinking open to him. He can look outwards upon 
the world around him; he can look inwards upon 
Constitution the sclf withiu him; he can look wpwards 
^^ ^'^^ to the God above him, to the Being who 
unites the outward and inward worlds and who 
manifests Himself in both. The child spontaneously 
throws his mind into the outer world and exercises 
his senses; he then examines the inner self and 
develops the reason; and finally he synthesizes the 
inner and outer through a faith in a Divine Unity. 
The intellectual life should grow into the moral 
life and the moral life should find its fruition in the 
religious consciousness. 

Our conscious life is made up of three ideas, 
the idea of the self, the idea of the not-self and the 
idea of the unity which is presupposed in the dif- 
Three fcrcuce of the self and the not-self or 

Life Ideas ^j^^ j^^^ ^f Q^^^ r^^iQ objcct aud the 

subject are merged into an absolute principle of 
unity which binds all thinking beings and all ob- 
jects of thought into one organic system of knowl- 
edge. The idea of God is the ultimate principle of 
our life and ''Every rational being as such is a 
religious being." Caird teaches that the germ of 
the idea of God as the ultimate unity of being and 
knowing, subject and object, must some way be 
present in every rational consciousness, for such a 
consciousness necessarily involves the idea of the 
self and the not-self, the ego and the world, as 



THE ETHICAL 129 

distinct, yet in relation, that is, as opposed within 
a unity. The clear reflective consciousness of the 
object without, of the subject within, and of God 
as the absolute reality which is beyond and beneath 
both — as one complete consciousness in which each 
of these terms is clearly distinguished and definitely 
related to the others — is, in the nature of the case, 
a late acquisition of man's spirit, and one that 
comes to him only as a result of a long process of 
development. In religion, Caird further says: 

"Man beholds his own existence in a transfigured reflection, in 
which all the divisions, all the crude lights and shadows of the 
world, are softened into eternal peace under the beams of a spiritual 
sun. It is in this native land of the spirit that the waters of 
oblivion flow; for here the darkness of life becomes a transparent 
dream-image, through which the light of eternity shines in upon us." 



THE TEACHING PROCESS 

THE GROWTH PROCESS 

X. 

THE MOVEMENT 

Teaching is a process of unfolding the spiritual 
life of the pupil and causes him to think, to study, 
to learn and to unify himself with the objective 
world. It is a spiritual movement below the ma- 
terial, a mental process beneath the physical, a 
soul activity underlying the mechanical 
^^ "" means. Teaching is a process of knowing 
the object by bringing it into unity with the subject, 
and knowing the subject by causing it to be realized 
in the object. It fuses the mind of the pupil with 
the mind of the teacher through the thought of the 
lesson. Emerson in the ''Spiritual Laws" affirms: 

"There is no teaching until the pupil is brought into the same 
state in which you are; a transfusion takes place, he is you and 
you are he; then there is teaching." 

Mind Movement. — The movement of the mind 
in teaching is vitally related to the movement of 
the mind in learning. Whatever may be the thought, 
feeling, volition and upward tendency of life in the 
teacher will become transfused into the life of the 
pupil in and through the process of teaching. The 
receptive nature of the pupil takes on to itself, 

130 



THE MOVEMENT 131 

consciously or unconsciously, the intellectual, social, 
sesthetical and moral status of the teacher. Teaching 
is an organic process of unifying mind internal in 
teacher and in pupil, with mind external The Mind 
in the lesson studied. Before the pupil Learning 
can obtain any knowledge or experience the same 
must be a living principle in the soul of the teacher. 
If the teacher is to cause the pupil to think the 
form, size, and beauty of the human eye, he must 
first think these relations himself, before they can 
be transmuted into the mind and life of the pupil. 
The movement in the pupil's mind harmonizes with 
the mind of the teacher and takes on to itself such 
emotional coloring, thought-relations and volitional 
tendencies as are found in the life of the teacher. 
The teacher transplants into the life of the pupil 
his own cultured self, builds into the soul of the 
pupil a perfect thought structure and thereby 
inspires him to realize the highest destiny of his 
being. No one can arouse what is best, truest and 
noblest in human nature who has not a deep, full, 
rich emotional temperament and a well-rounded 
life. The artistic teacher has the ability 
to build into the mind of the pupil a Artistic 

mental structure organically related to 
the thought and spirit of the world. He is charged 
with personal magnetism, imbued with the spirit 
of his profession and has the ability to electrify 
the pupil and to disturb his mental equilibrium 
as the magnet attracts and disturbs substances 
within the magnetic field. 



132 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The movement in teaching differs from the move- 
ment of mind in learning, yet at the same time 
the two processes fuse and intermingle. While the 
pupil is thinking the thought of the lesson the teacher 
is thinking the pupil's process of thinking. The 
pupil's mind is directed toward the lesson, while 
at the same time the teacher's mind is fixed upon 
the peculiar activity through which the 
And pupil's mind must pass to gain the 

knowledge desired. Within the inner 
chamber of the soul of the pupil the teacher watches 
the mystic movements of the spiritual forces gather- 
ing in new knowledge and growing and developing 
in and through spirit objective to itself. The true 
teacher understands not only this subtle movement 
of the mind of the child, but also the logical order 
of knowledge to be learned. By means of questions, 
directions and illustrations, and concrete material 
he has the happy faculty of uniting the child with 
the subject taught in the bond of intellectual life, 
growth and development. 

The Psychology of Subjects. — The psychology 
that the teacher needs is not child psychology, 
genetic psychology, physiological psychology, ex- 
perimental psychology, abnormal psychology, race 
psychology and animal psychology, but "primarily 
the psychology of the subjects to be taught. By 
Professional mcaus of acadcmic knowledge the teacher 
^*"*^^ understands subjects, but by means of 

professional knowledge he gains ability to teach 
them. The professional study of a subject resolves 



THE MOVEMENT 133 

it into the mental processes constituting it and 
explains the method of presenting these ideas 
and thoughts to the growing mind. Profession- 
alism means such a study of a subject that will 
clearly indicate the process by which the mind 
creates it and by which the mind learns the facts 
created and analyzed. 

To be able to teach geography the teacher must 
know not only the subject as such, but must have 
a thorough knowledge of the organizing principle 
of the subject. He must by careful analysis and 
synthesis know the mental activities to be stimu- 
lated in teaching the subject and be familiar with 
the unitary principle around which the subject is 
organized. Before the teacher engages in the actual 
concrete process of teaching he must have a knowl- 
edge of the psychology of geography, the psy- 
chology of reading, the psychology of history and 
the psychology of all other subjects he proposes to 
teach. To be able to resolve each branch of study 
into its mental processes is the funda- ^ ^^^^ 

mental basis for scientific teaching. The Processes 

... ^ , . ,. Of Subjects 

mental activities found m reading, the 
mind's way of knowing and thinking the printed 
page, the faculties stimulated in the process, these 
and these alone are the absolute fundamental 
principles necessary in the correct teaching of 
reading. The psychology of a subject is not some- 
thing external to it; it is nothing more than the 
mental acts which the mind takes in grasping it; 
it involves the thinking activity in learning it. 



134 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The objective method which creates the subject is 
not invented and then applied to the subject, but 
is discovered in and through a knowledge of the 
subject itself. This })rofessional study of a subject 

involves a comprehension of the organiz- 
orpnizing ing priuclplc in the subject, a thorough 

knowledge of the central factor of mental 
life and a delicate adjustment of the law in the 
mind to the fact in the thing. In teaching botany 
it is necessary to see the relations in ])lant life that 
have corresponding relations in mind activity, and 
to understand how the mind grows in tracing the 
thought in the vegetable world. The psychology 
of the subject states the mental laws creating the 
subject and the mind processes which the subject 
stimulates and nourishes. It traces out the con- 
crete process of thinking a subject and analyzes the 
processes by which the mind constructs the sub- 
ject. It is a method of exploring the innermost 
constitution of a subject and can be attained by 
thinking the mind to be taught into unity of the 
subject by which it is taught to the end of growth. 
Such a knowledge of a subject gives new signifi- 
cance of it, and creates within the teacher an inspira- 
tion and a new insight into the teaching process. 
Educational Values. — A study of the psychol- 
The ^Sy ^^ subjects logically leads to a 

Greatest dlscussiou of tlicir rclativc educational 

l"i<lii(Mitioiml 

Value values. That subject has the greatest 

educational value which aids the pupil in grasping 
the widest range of thought and which most easily 



THE MOVEMENT 135 

and completely helps him realize his true self. 
While all subjects have a knowledge value, a 
disciplinary value, a practical value and a cultural 
value, '^That branch of study which arouses most 
fully the activity of the student is the one that is 
most educative to him." Knowledge is a process 
of gaining new facts, ideas, thoughts, truths, prin- 
ciples and laws. Discipline is the increased mind 
capacity resulting from knowledge and represents 
the added increment of mind power due to the 
acquisition of knowledge. The practical and 
cultural values may be easily harmonized, for 
whatever develops the human soul furthers life's 
interest. 

To understand the educational value of a subject 
requires a thorough knowledge of the organizing 
principle which creates the subject and which 
develops it into its divisions and sub-divisions. 
There is a certain mind activity which constitutes 
subject-matter and which stimulates and nourishes 
to growth in proportion to the fundamental thought 
embodied. To get an idea of the educational value 
of reading, grammar, arithmetic, and other sub- 
jects it is necessary to resolve them into the mind 
processes which they develop and enlarge. Mind 

The artistic teacher adjusts the mind Processes 
processes in the subjects to corresponding mind 
activities in the learner and that subject has the 
greatest educational value which assists the mind 
in the most natural way to realize its ideal and 
essential nature. 



136 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

It is time wasted to discuss the relative educa- 
tional value of grammar and arithmetic or history 
and geography for the comparative worth of each 
must be estimated in terms of spiritual 

Relative /• i n ^ '^ r\ 

Etiucationai frccdom of the pupil. One subject de- 
velops one mind capacity and another 
enlarges the life in another direction, but both are 
essential to the evolution of the self. It is possible 
that one individual may realize his highest ideal 
through literature and another through science and 
the difTerent branches of study are necessary for 
a well-rounded and full-orbed life. 

The Growth Movement. — The movement of the 
mind in teaching and learning is a growth process 
which merges gradually into a thought process and 
finally ends in a true life process. Dr. Arnold 
Tompkins explains this process by saying: 

"The teacher must think the mind that is taught into unity 
with the subject by which it is taught; or, the subject to be taught 
into unity with the mind to which it is taught. " 

This movement strengthens the pupil's intel- 
lectual capacity, stimulates the social, iesthetical 
and ethical nature and fills the whole being with 
Function of upward tendencies and aspirations in 

The Teacher j-f^^ rpj^-^ gj^Q^^J^ prOCCSS is mOSt bcaU- 

tifully illustrated in studying the different move- 
ments of mind in teaching and reciting a reading 
lesson. 

First Movement in Reading. — That movement 
which prepares the child to read is constructive 



THE MOVEMENT 137 

and reconstructive rather than interpretative. This 
movement does not harmonize with the alphabetic, 
phonic, phonetic. Pollard, Ward, motor, sentence, 
group nor object method, but uses that which 
is closest to the child's life and which I call the 
social thought method. 

The means used in this method are plants, animals^ 
fruit, flowers, a bird's nest, science in general, 
pictures, stories and myths. The mental steps in 
reading are: First, Thinking; second, 
Talking; third. Writing; fourth, Reading. 
The child is made to think through interest in 
the external stimulus. By means of his social 
surroundings he is led to talk freely. Through 
interest in the means presented and through the 
power of imitation, he pours out his energy in 
his attempt to write. He reads the sentences 
filled with the warmth of his own thought as 
spontaneously and beautifully as he thinks them 
or talks them. 

In the first preparatory stage of reading the 
child goes from interesting thought to outward 
form. His thinking and talking are gradually 
merged into writing and reading. The Thought 
following recitation is based upon an To Form 
apple by pupils who have just entered school: 
The apple. The apple is green. The apple is red. 
The apple has a stem. The apple has seed. The 
apple is round. The apple has a core. The apple 
is hard. The apple has a skin. By thinking the 
apple, the child externalizes his thoughts and 



138 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

creates oral sentences. Through imitation and 
interest the child struggles to write these and lastly 
reads his own thoughts embodied in his own 
language as naturally as he talks them. 

A lesson on a bird's nest: A nest. The nest has 
a cord. The nest has hay. The nest has lace. The 
nest has mud. The nest has straw. The nest is 
Interest and fouud. The ucst has weeds. The straw 

Imitation jg ^^^^ rj.^^ ^^^^ j^^g ^^^^^i. ThcSC tcn 

sentences represent ten thoughts of ten different 
pupils. While the interest is at the highest pitch 
the teacher rushes to the board and writes the 
child's thoughts. In the intensity of his interest 
and through the power of imitation the pupils copy 
these forms (sentences) and read them out of the 
fulness of their own minds. The preliminary 
process in reading is thinking thought, creating 
thought and expressing thought. The move- 
ment of the mind in beginning to read is from 
content to form. After the child thinks, talks and 
writes he is naturally and easily led to read his 
own language. 

The first movement in reading gives the child 

the language habit, assists him in translating his 

ideas into sensible forms and drills him in the 

power of conversation and in muscular 

The 1 T 1 

Language coordmatiou m writmg and paves the way 
to the real reading act. These prelimi- 
nary lessons should open the child's mind to the 
many objects of interest and gives him fluency of 
speech. It takes about eighty-five per cent of the 



THE MOVEMENT 139 

child's energy to write the sentences which the other 
fifteen per cent expresses so easily. It is pedagog- 
ically wrong to begin with the form, for the initial 
stage in reading must necessarily be the child's 
own thought. William James makes: 

"Every acquired reaction a complication grafted on a native 
reaction, or a substitute for a native reaction." 

The native reaction is the child's own interesting 
thought and the acquired reaction is the formal 
sentence uninteresting in itself, but intensely valu- 
able when it contains his own thought. 

In a recitation in Dr. John Dewey's Experimental 
School, the children built a doll house consisting 
of two rooms, three windows, and two doors. It 
was built of brick and was attractive Dr. Dewey's 
and inspiring. The social nature of the ^''^'^°^ 

child, coming in contact with playmates and teacher, 
bursts forth into language through the power of 
intrinsic thought. 

The child thinks about the house, talks to his 
associates, and by energy of mind gushingly writes 
his thoughts on the black-board. Lastly, he reads 
his own composition in a most interesting and 
inspiring manner. 

The child sees a squirrel in a cage, a bird in a 
tree, a fish in the water, an animal in a museum 
and is led through the intensity of his The child's 
thought to express himself in language. Language 
He first reads his own language, and is gradually 
led to read and appreciate the composition of 



140 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

others. There should be from thirty to fifty lessons 
based upon the child's own language before he 
attempts to read and interpret the language of 
some one else. 

Second Movement in Reading. — The second stage 
or movement in reading is the interpretation 
of the thought found in the language written by 
some one else. The mental movement is from some 
concrete idea, through form to thought. This 
movement is the reverse of the first process. After 
a few simple lessons of this nature, suppose the 
child makes a study of — 

"THE OWL. 

"The owl sat in a hollow tree, 

And cried the whole day through, 
'I can not see, the sun blinds me. 

Ah! what am I to do?' 

"When night was dark the owl looked out, 

And thought he'd leave his house. 
For 'hght, ' said he, 'has come to me, 

I'll go and catch a mouse.' 

"The mouse he caught and then he cried, 

'What next am I to do? 
The woods shall ring, I'll sit and sing, 

Too whit! Too whit!! Too whoo!!!' " 

Before the pupil reads this lesson, he must be 

made familiar with its content. By means of a 

mounted owl the child becomes intensely 

interested in this lesson. The owl is 

examined, and the following points noted: The 

eyes, claws, wings and bill. The child's attention is 



THE MOVEMENT 141 

called to the hollow tree, the sun, night, his 
house, light, mouse, woods, 'Hoo whit" and 'Hoc 
whoo." Every idea in the poem should be pre- 
sented to the pupil in a concrete manner. After 
he has become interested in the content, thought 
or meaning in a general way, he is ready to read. 
Having become interested in the study of the 
owl, the pupil now reads the poem and inter- 
prets the meaning in a happy, interesting and 
joyous manner. 

Third Movement in Reading. — After the pupil 
has had about fifty lessons in prose and poetry 
based upon concrete life, he is ready to take the 
third step in reading. The mental move- Form to 
ment is now to interpret through the content 
form the abstract ideas of the production. The 
mind passes through the realm of the concrete into 
that of abstract thought. The poem or prose 
production must be read by imaging the meaning 
back of the word. The sentence, the paragraph, 
the verse, and the stanza should be read and inter- 
preted from the abstract standpoint. 

Dr. Arnold Tompkins in his Literary Interpreta- 
tions gives such a fine analysis of this third move- 
ment in reading that I quote and give in substance 
his interpretation of the three types of poems. 
In his first type there is a constant stress, or tension, 
between two opposing forces. This tension is the 
inner heart of the poem, and gives the key to its 
interpretation. Perhaps the best example of this 
type of poems is Longfellow^s — 



142 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

"THE RAINY DAY. 
"The day is cold, and dark, and dreary; 
It rains, and the wind is never weary; 

The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 

But at every gust the dead leaves full, 
And the day is dark and dreary, 

"My life is cold, and dark, and dreary; 

It rains, and the wind is never weary; 

My thoughts still cling to the mouldering Past, 
But the hopes of youth fall thick in the blast, 

And the days are dark and dreary. 

"Be still, sad heart! and cease repining; 
Behind the clouds is the sun still shining; 

Thy fate is the common fate of all, 

Into each life some rain must fall. 
Some days must be dark and dreary. " 

In this poem there is a struggle between two 
phases of life, sadness and cheerfulness. The 
polarity found in this poem is a pliilosoi)hical 
principle which reaches deep down into the struc- 
ture of the universe. We are taught that the world 
itself is nothing more than an energy struggling 
between potentiality and actuality. In the third 
World movement in reading the pupil is ushered 

Dualism '^^^^ ^^iQ realm of subjectivity. He is 
given an insight into the structure of mind itself. 
The life principle, the imagery, the rhyme, the 
rhythm and the figures of speech are all created by 
a struggle between two opposing forces. The poem 
portrays life's struggles and awakens within the 
reader the consciousness of its own freedom. Its 
function and purpose is to liberate the individual 
from his bondage. 



THE MOVEMENT 143 

The polarity in a poem is the life principle which 
creates it. In "The Psalm of Life," it is success 
and failure; ''The Two Voices," life and death; 
*'Day is Done," rest and care; "Reaper poeticai 
and Flowers," life and death; ''Light of ^"'""'^ 
Stars," pain and strength; "Hymn to Night," 
care and repose; "Footsteps of Angels," sadness 
and cheerfulness; "Flowers," death and resurrec- 
tion; "Goblet of Life," bitterness and strength; 
"The Bridge," sadness and cheerfulness; "Court- 
ship of Miles Standish," duty and desire; "To the 
Daisy," joy and sorrow; "The Merchant of Venice/' 
love and hate. 

Denton J. Snider has shown that Homer's "Hiad" 
consists of a series of dualisms and reconciliations. 
The genetic principle is a conflict or scission which 
ends in a harmony. The first movement Homer's 
in the Iliad is a struggle between the "H'ad" 

Orient, represented by the Trojans, and the Occi- 
dent, by the Greeks. There is also a scission between 
the human and the divine, between the lower and 
the upper world and between the gods and men. 
Within the Greek camp there is a scission between 
Agamemnon and Achilles, and among the Trojans, 
between Paris and Hector. In the upper world 
there is a scission between Zeus and the lower 
gods, between his infinite and finite power and 
among the inferior gods between Venus, Mars and 
Apollo, representing the Trojan partisans, and 
Juno, Minerva and Neptune representing the 
Greeks. These dualisms form the creative energy 



144 Till*: l^lDlK^A'riONAL IMUK^IOSS 

of ili(^ Epic. Tlu^y arc rc-ccliocd in ilic uuuh' licnrt- 
bcat. of Mi(^ universe. In lilcraiiirc, as in the world 
viivh s(.i"ii^<i;l(^ is re(U)n('ile(l niid liarrnoni/ed into a 
hi^lier form of life. l'].'Mdi literary heart-beat indi- 
cjites a hi«i;her <i;ro\vth in life and a furtlier advance 
in hunijin freedom. The world, the poem and life 
itself consist of a series of stru^^les between what 
is ;ind what ou^ht to be. 

s«MM)M(i I'he S(MU)n(l type of poems is an illustra- 

''•'^^**' tion of (he true na(ui-e of (he teaching 

])rocess. In these the movement, is indicated in 
tlie followin*!; litcinry (piotations: 

"My lu'.'ul traps up uIicm I behold a, laiiibovv in th(^ nicy." 

WoilDSWOIlTH. 

"'riiiit ovoii in sava|;c l)(),M()mM (Ikmh^ arc lonfjjiuf^H, youniings, 
«triviiigH for [\w ^ood lliry ('()ini)r('li(Mi(l not." 

L<)N(iKKMA)VV. 

"Tlu^ Ihinf; we loii^' for, I hat wo arc." 

liOVVIOM.. 

"What I aspiic^l (o be and was not, coinrorts nic. " 

— HuowNiNd. 
"Higher si ill and higher." 

SlIIOLLEY. 

Tliesc* ^(Mus represeid. the true Uj)\vard life move- 
ment. Th(^ po(^t tells us that all animal and vej;e- 
table life is ''upward turning." One of the best 
poems to illustrate this upward movement of 
luiman life and thou«!;ht, is Bryant's — 

*'T{) A VVATIORFOWL. 

"WhilluM-, ntnidsl, falling dow, 

Whiles glow Mio lioavens with lUe last. sre|)s of day, 
l"ur, through their nxsy depths doHt t turn |)ursiio 
Thy solitary way? 



THE MOVEMENT 145 

" Vaiiil}' tlio lowlnr'iS eye; 

Miglil, murk tlie diHUint (light to do tluM; wrong, 
As, darkly puintod on the crimson sky, 
Thy figure floats along. 

"Seek'st tliou tlie planhy brink 

Of wee<ly lake or marge of river wide 
Or where the rocking billows rise and sink 
On the chafed ocean side? 

'"riiere is a J*ower whose cani 

Teaclies thy way along that f)atlil<'ss coast, — 
The desert and illiniitabK; air,- 

Lone wandering, but not lost. 

"Ail day thy wings iiave fanned, 

At that far h(;iglit, the; cold, thin atmospJKMe, 
Yet sto(jf) not, w(!ary, to the; weh^onie land, 
Tliough th(; dark night is iHiar. 

"And soon thy toil shall end; 

Soofj shalt thou find a sumuHsr honu;, and rest 
An<l scr(;am among thy fellows; rvAnln shall bend 
Soon o'er thy sheltered nest. 

"'Ihou'rt gone, the abyss of h(rav(!n 

Ilatli swallowed uf) thy form; ycit, on my h<'art 
Deeply halh sunk th(! I(!SSon thou hast given. 
And shall not soon d<!part. 

" H(! whf), from /oik; t«> /oii<;, 

(Juidos tlwough tii(; boundh'KS sky thy c(;rtain (light 
In the long way I must tn;ad alone; 
Will lead my st(!ps aright. " 

The mental inovcirHint in this \HWin is onward 
and upward, foUowinj^ tlie physical movement of 
th(5 Waterfowl. In the int(;r{)r(;tation of a [)0(;m 
th(; mind first s(;arches out the individual or ohjc^et 
described in tlie po(;m, and secondly, eonciuvc^s the 
universal, ideal meaning taught in Uu) production. 
10 



146 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The purpose of a poem is to teach some 
Ami universal, fundamental principle of life, 

Universal . . 

through the medium of some individual 
object. The poetic process is that movement of 
mind which universalizes some individual thing. 
The problem in the interpretation of a poem, is to 
analyze clearly the individual and note the dis- 
tinctions of the fundamental ideas embodied in the 
universal truth. The following analysis of this 
poem will indicate a method of interpreting many 
literary selections. 

THE INDIVIDUAL. THE UNIVERSAL. 

1. The waterfowl. 1. Faith and Divine Provi- 

2. The solitary way. dence. 

3. The fowler's eye. 2. The soul arising above 

4. From zone to zone. disappointments. 

5. The illimitable air. 3. The soul rallying through 

6. The bird has no doubts faith. 

nor fears. 4. No visible guiding power. 

7. The waterfowl has free- 5. A lack of faith. 

dom. 6. Bryant has doubts and 

8. The waterfowl realizes its fears. 

freedom. 7. Bryant is in bondage. 

8. Bryant rejoices in the 
water-fowl's freedom. 

Such a study is not grammatical, rhetorical, 
philological, nor a literary and critical analysis in 
the ordinary sense of the word. It is an attempt 
to enter Bryant's "workshop and follow the genera- 
tive thought as it bursts into reality and thrills 
and throbs into harmonious utterance.'* 

The third type of poems represent the downward 
movement of life and thought. It pictures human 



THE MOVEMENT 147 

life in bondage to grief, despair and de- Third 

spondcncy. This type leads us into the ^^^^ 

dismal paths of life and illustrates the bewailing and 
bemoaning experiences of human life. It portrays 
that gloomy mood of the soul in ''The Slough of 
Despond." It is a saddened picture in which "My 
heart is bewailing and tolling within me like a 
funeral bell." Perhaps the best representation of 
this type in the English language is Tennyson's — 

"BREAK, BREAK, BREAK. 

"Break, break, break, 

On thy cold gray stones, O Seal 
And I would that my tongue could utter 

The thoughts that arise in me. 

"O well for the fisherman's boy, 

That he shouts with his sister at play I 

O well for the sailor lad, 

That he sings in his boat on the bay! 

"And the stately ships go on 

To their haven under the hill; 
But O for the touch of a vanish'd hand, 

And the sound of a voice that is still 1 

"Break, break, break. 

At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! 
But the tender grace of a day that is dead 

Will never come back to me. " 

In this type of poems of which Longfellow's 
''Afternoon in February" is another example, the 
soul of the reader is plunged into the depths of 
grief, sorrow, and sadness. A poem usually liber- 
ates the soul from some form of bondage, but in 
this selection each stanza increases the intensity 



148 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of the sadness. At each thought and stroke of the 
poet, the bondage is idealized, strengthened and 
intensified. As the poet gradually enters the 
abysmal shades of grief he idealizes and universal- 
izes sadness, which is an essential experience of 
Process ^hc soul in attaining freedom. The 

Of Freedom h^jjjan soul bccomcs free by being stirred 
to its very foundation by some such scene as ''the 
touch of a vanish'd hand" or 'Hhe sound of a voice 
that is still." When an individual feels so intensely 
he is on the royal road to freedom. To idealize 
grief and sorrow, to play upon the melancholy 
chord, to feel deeply some sad experience of life — 
these are true elements of liberation and freedom. 

Tennyson leads us into the realm of the sorrowful 
by beginning with ''the cold gray stones" and the 
thoughts that he can scarcely utter. Then he 
pictures the scenes of the fisherman and sailor and 
portrays some of the most touching images of human 
life, namely, the "vanished hand" and the "voice 
that is still." To realize the significance of this 
picture, one is ushered into the very threshold of 
death, and made to feel the intense grief of a still 
voice, the hand cold in death and the dead day. 

Fourth Movement in Reading. — In the final men- 
tal movement in reading and literary study, the 
student is required to make a vivid picture of the 
imagery contained in the selection studied. 

Pictures . cii ti -i* 

ihe lesson is read carefully, studied criti- 
cally as to form and content, reproducing the 
imagery first orally then pictorially. If the se- 



THE MOVEMENT 149 

lection is short the pupil portrays the entire im- 
agery, but in a long literary production as *^ Evan- 
geline '^ or ''The Great Stone Face/' each student 
is assigned some definite picture and the class 
reproduces the total imagery. By a close study of 
the imagery of the selection in this manner followed 
by an artistic reproduction of it, the pupil is thor- 
oughly trained in the appreciation of a literary 
work of art. 

The philosophy of the method lies in the fact 
that internal ideas are objectified and made sensu- 
ous in drawings. The thought, spirit and essence 
lying dormant in the words, sentences, paragraphs, 
and stanzas are externalized in the particular, 
paintings. It is a process of estrangement processor 
and removal which harmonizes with the Estrangement 
movement, growth and development of mind. In 
this process the mind in the selection was first 
estranged from the author when the piece was 
written. The pupil in rethinking the thoughts and 
imagery of the author, first pictures them mentally 
and then externalizes them on paper. After be- 
coming absorbed in the spirit of the poem or prose 
selection, the pupil struggles with all his might to 
portray the imagery beautifully in external form. 

'♦ Lord Ullin's Daughter." — In studying this 
short poem the first image would be a picture of 
the daughter and lover standing on the bank of 
the river waiting for the ferryman. In the back- 
ground is seen the sky, the moon, and a beautiful 
woodland scene. In the foreground is the ferryman 



150 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

in his skiff crossing the river. The next picture 
illustrates Lord UHin and his train of men on 
horseback in pursuit, plunging madly through the 
woodland. This scene is followed by another 
picturing the a})proaching storm, the ferryman, and 
the daughter and lover crossing the tempest-tossed 
river. The last imagery represents the denouement 
of the story picturing Lord UHin standing on the 
bank of the river in the midst of a storm and be- 
holding the empty boat. 

** The Snow Image.** — To portray the imagery 
of this beautiful story of Hawthorne, the pupil 
first paints a snow scene, including a snow ball, the 
home, the sun, and Violet and Peony in the yard. 
As the children are given permission by the mother 
to enjoy the snow-storm, the pupil depicts the 
following thought: ''Yes, you may go out and play 
in the new snow." In the development of this 
fascinating story, a picture of the home, angel faces, 
Violet and Peony, and The Snow Image should be 
drawn to illustrate — ''What other children could 
have made any thing so like a little girl's figure out 
of snow." Following the thread of the story, it 
would be interesting for some pupil to picture the 
thought of Violet's language: "What a nice play- 
mate she will make for us all winter." The Snow 
Image should be drawn in such an artistic manner 
as to bring out the following thought: '^Tliat color 
comes from the golden clouds we see up there in the 
sky." Another pretty scene shows the mother — 
''After opening the door, she stood an instant on 



THE MOVEMENT 151 

the threshold" — viewing the image, bedecked with 
birds, surrounded by Violet and Peony. The 
mother in utter astonishment exclaims: ''It must 
certainly be one of the neighbors' daughters." 
The father should be pictured as he approaches the 
image and says: ''Come! you odd little thing!" 
The final scene represents The Snow Image placed 
near the stove; "A good fire will put every thing 
to rights." As the image melts, Violet in her 
excitement and bereavement shouts — "There is all 
that is left of our dear little snow-sister." 

"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." — The following 
pictures were taken from actual work done in the 
class-room. Sleepy Hollow is graphically pictured 
near the Hudson river, enlarging into Tappan 
Zee. In this valley is situated Tarrytown, sur- 
rounded by hills, forest and a murmuring brook. 
The headless horseman is riding a vicious animal. 
The church is dismally located amid the graves 
of the original pioneers. Ichabod Crane is vividly 
portrayed in connection with the church in which 
he taught music, the boarding-house, and the 
school-house. The school is situated near the 
brook, amidst a forest of birch trees, in which are 
heard the complaining notes of the owl and the 
whippoorwill. The rustic Zaltus Van Tassel and his 
charming (?) daughter Katrina, are sketched at 
their home on the Hudson. In the barn yard are 
seen the porkers, the fowls and other evidences of 
thrift and industry. The mighty Brom Bones, the 
terror of the community, is drawn in Sampson 



152 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

fashion. A most vivid picture is made of the little 
negro delivering the invitation to Ichabod, to attend 
the dance at Katrina's home. Ichabod uncere- 
moniously dismissed the children, secured Gun- 
powder, and started on his way rejoicing. A very 
laughable picture of the dance is made with the 
pickaninnies looking on in the background. Dare- 
devil, the property of Brom Bones, is pictured in 
contrast to Gunpowder. The last episode happened 
near Major Andre's tree. As Ichabod was approach- 
ing the famous bridge, he was hurled from his horse. 
The climax of the story is shown in the finding of 
his hat, saddle and pumpkin. 

♦♦ Hiawatha." — The following described pictures 
in colors were worked out by a class in the Model 
School. Hiawatha is painted with red feathers, 
black hair, the body in chrome yellow, the lower 
extremities clothed in bright orange and trimmed 
in red fringes. The ancient arrow maker painted 
in a tan color is standing at his wigwam. He is 
beautifully bedecked with feathers, face painted, 
and gorgeously attired. Old Nokomis dressed in 
true Indian fashion, is standing between a tree 
covered with green foliage and a wigwam watching 
the boiling kettle. Minnehaha, Laughing Water, 
is drawn as a very attractive Indian squaw with 
rosy cheeks and gala apparel. Hiawatha, Minne- 
haha and her father are portrayed ensemble in such 
a way as to illustrate the quotation: *'Give me as 
my wife, this maiden." As Minnehaha modestly 
stands in the background, Hiawatha with out- 



THE MOVEMENT 153 

stretched arms is pleading fervently to her father, 
who is smoking a pipe. Six wigwams are drawn 
in different colors to represent '^Welcome, English- 
man!" Hiawatha is sketched with a deer thrown 
over his shoulder, and passing through a beautiful 
woodland, with the moon just appearing at the 
horizon. Gaudy colors are used and the picture is 
made realistic. After illustrating — ''You are wel- 
come, Hiawatha," an attractive picture is painted 
to represent the homeward journey. These draw- 
ings of Hiawatha show the study, the imagery and 
the artistic skill of the different pupils. The method 
creates unbounded interest and gives the students 
true literary culture. 

** Enoch Arden." — This pictorial interpretation 
of Enoch Arden was worked out by pupils of the 
ninth grade: Annie Lee is drawn in a most exquisite 
dress of blue, trimmed in red and old gold. Philip's 
mill is located between two rivers, which are crossed 
by rustic bridges. The old, dilapidated tavern is 
situated on an elevated lawn surrounded by a 
forest. The village in the distance, at the bend of 
the river has a fine location, both artistically and 
commercially. *'A lonely island" is sketched by 
one pupil, and another places Enoch Arden there, 
hailing the approach of a ship. A beautiful drawing 
is painted, showing Philip holding a rose, and 
Annie standing near him with a downcast look: 
"Then first since Enoch's ring girt her finger, 
Annie fought his will." Another scene represents 
Annie standing at the door and as Enoch bids her 



154 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

adieu — ''he waved his hand and went his way." 
The most vivid picture is a representation of 
Enoch lying on his death bed as Miriam Lane 
approaches. 

In the same manner pictorial interpretations 
have recently been made by pupils of the Model 
School of— ''Rip Van Winkle," ''The Great Stone 
Face," "Evangeline," "Snow Bound," "Deserted 
Village," "Vision of Sir Launfal," Gray's ''Elegy," 
"Courtship of Miles Standish," "Cotters' Saturday 
Night" and "Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner." 

In the fourth movement in reading the pupil is 
required to read the selection in a slow, critical 
and analytical manner, noting the meaning of 
words, grammatical constructions, rhetorical ele- 
gance, the prosody, the allusions, kind of language 
and lesson taught. After the selection has been 
gt„ry I't-ad and studied in a careful manner, the 

"^''''^ characters noted and its relation to the 

laws of the beautiful, the completed and continuous 
story must be told orally first and then reduced 
to writing. 

The entire literary production is read and re- 
read until the pupil has a vivid picture in his mind 
of the complete thought embodied in the selection. 
He is then required to stand before the class and 
tell in story form, in his own language, the entire 
thought of the classic. In this manner the pupil 
incorporates into his life the beautiful thoughts of 
master minds, and is thereby given a desire to 
study and to appreciate literature. 



THE MOVEMENT 155 

The last process in teaching reading is to picture 
in tangible form the imagery found in the production 
which clinches and transmutes the thoughts of the 
classic into mind substance. In reading a selection 
the pupil has only a blurred image of the thought. 
These images must be studied, drawn on pictorial 
the black-board, sketched in the tablet ^*"*'^ 

and finally painted in water colors. The scenes 
must be studied from an artistic point of view and 
painted and colored in such a manner as to bring 
out the delicate shades of thought in the classic. 
When these drawings are completed they should 
be mounted and placed upon the wall of the school- 
room for inspection. This three-fold method in 
reading inspires the teacher, interests the children, 
and creates enthusiasm among the patrons of the 
school. 



XL 

THE METHOD. 

Method is a real activity of a subject to be studied 
made to harmonize with an ideal activity of a mind 
to be developed. There is a method in every subject 
to be learned and a method in every mind 
to be taught and true method m teachmg 
consists in exactly adjusting the pupil's mind to 
the corresponding thought processes in the objec- 
tive world. Prof. William A. Jones originated the 
most fundamental conception of method known in 
the history of education; namely, 

"The luw in the miiul and the fuct in the thing determine the 
method. " 

The real problem in method is to unify the thought 
in the thing with the law in the mind. 

The Thought in the Thing.— The thought in the 
thing is the universal principle of reason creat- 
ing and sustaining the world. It is the living spirit 
of all that is, pervades all forms of life, produces 
all phases of activity and determines all method. 
The method of the fact in the thing is objective 
Objective ^^^ formulates subject-matter apart from 
Method ^1^^ learning mind. There is a certain type 

of activity developing the flora and another form 
creating the fauna of a country. Method in bot- 
any investigates the former activity and method 
156 



THE METHOD 157 

in zoology the latter, and in each case method 
is the peculiar constructive power of nature which 
develops the multiplicity of forms according to 
certain natural laws. Both the scientist and the 
philosopher teach that what is, is activity and hence 
method is a type of activity or a law of existence. 
A certain law of nature creates rocks and a different 
type of energy produces Saturn's rings. Method 
in mineralogy traces out the law of nature in rock 
formation, and method in astronomy investigates 
the subtle forces of nebular matter resulting in the 
rings. The tides are learned and taught by method 
in geography and the trilobite, by method in pale- 
ontology. Method in the common branches traces 
out the fundamental activities creating the various 
subjects, explains the organizing principle of each, 
and shows how mental life grows in and through a 
knowledge of subject-matter. The thought in a 
branch of study is its law or method and an insight 
into this method reveals its creative energy, and 
gives the clue to teach it. To understand how to 
teach anything means to study the thought as it 
creates the thing. 

The Evolution of Activity.^AU activity grad- 
ually develops into higher and higher forms until 
it becomes self-active and self-determined. The 
activity of the geode is a lower form than the 
activity of the sponge; the activity of the ape is 
higher than that of the hare. In th(5 ascending 
scale of creation, activity is transformed into self- 
activity which conquers other forms and trans- 



158 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

mutes them into its own being. There 
is in the orange tree a self-activity, which 
causes it to grow, to branch, to put forth leaves, 
to blossom and to develop into fruit. The orange 
energy destroys things external to itself and ap- 
propriates them to build up its own tissues. To 
understand how to teach the orange is to trace out 
the intelligence found in its structure and to identify 
this knowledge with the orange activity in the 
learning mind. 

A still higher form of activity is seen in the horse 
and lion. They destroy plant and animal life 
respectively and appropriate and assimilate these 
Higher i^or the upbuilding of cells and tissues. 

Activity Locomotion, feeling and conformity to a 
definite purpose are added increments of life in the 
animal not found in the plant. Method in biology, 
treating life, differentiates itself into method in con- 
chology in teaching "The Chambered Nautilus," and 
method in ornithology in studying ''The Robin." 

The highest form of self-activity is found in the 
human mind. While the plant and animal grow 
without plan or purpose, the human soul grows by 
Self. setting up ideals — then struggling to at- 

Activity ^^jj^ them. Mental activity is an illustra- 
tion of law; law is another name for method, and 
method is the peculiar manner in which a subject 
is formed. Method in engineering discusses the 
self-activity which constructed the Brooklyn bridge 
and method in literature gives the mode of pro- 
cedure in teaching ''Evangeline." The teacher of 



THE METHOD 159 

method must be able to distinguish the various 
phases of self-activity and know how to reduce 
every subject of study to its original creative 
principle. This is the objective method and is the 
activity which gives form to grammar and history 
and arranges their divisions and subdivisions. The 
objective method in creating grammar must be 
distinguished from the subjective method in learn- 
ing grammar. 

The Parts of Speech. — The different parts of 
speech are treated in grammar and are objective 
to the teacher and pupil. The objective method 
traces out the origin of a subject while the sub- 
jective method analyzes the process by which it is 
taught and learned. To derive the parts of speech 
is an objective process because it takes into con- 
sideration the genetic principle of grammar. 

IDEAS WORDS 

1. Object Pencil Noun 

It Pronoun 

2. Attributes (qualities) 

a Round Adjective. 

h Almost Adverb. 

c To fall Infinitive. 

d Falling Participle. 

3. Connecting 

a And Conjunction. 

h Is Verb. 

c On Preposition. 

4. Any more? 

There is a method of thought which creates the 
noun and a different shade of thinking that produces 
the conjunction. The parts of speech originated 



100 TITK EOTICATTONAI. PROCESS 

in thought process(\s objective; to the pupil who 
studies graininar and may be illustrated by think- 
ing tin; lea(l-j)(!ncil. Tlu; idcias used in thinking 
are expressed in words classified according to their 
use and an; nann^d parts of s[)(M!ch. The lead- 
pencil is first thought as an object 
and tlu; word which expresses the name 
of that idea is called a noun. In thinking the 
lead -pencil then; are certain words (as it) 
which designate obj(;cts without naming 
them and an; call(;(l pronouns. The 
mind is next direct(;(l to th(; attributes or (pialities 
of the pencil as round and that })art of speech which 
expresses an attribute of a substance is 
known as an adjective. lh(; mind may 
tliink the lead-pencil mon; closely and clearly ob- 
serve that it is not round but almost round. Almost 
is an attribute of round which is an 
attribute of pencil. That })art of speech 
which expresses an attribute of an attribute; is 
named an adverb. In thinking the lead-p(;ncil to 
q.,,p fall or falling, attributes of action are 

iniiniioverb (|isc(U'ned wliicli, clothed in wonls, are 
called respectively — infinitives and participles. 
Garfield once taught: 

"A participle is the skin of a verb stulTed with the bran of an 
adjective. " 

In continuing the thought processes (concerning 
the lead-pencil it is consid(;re(l round and long. 
And is a word which expresses relation merely 



TUK MP:TII()I) hu 

wiiliout perfoririiii^ any other I'unction 

(!(>iijiiti(;t.i<jri 

of thought and is known as a conjunc- 
tion. When w(; tliink th(! Ic^ad-penoil is long W(; us(i 
another connecting idea which is the; essential 
elein(;nt of th(5 sentcince. The; verb is 
that part of sfxuich that ass(!rts an attri- 
bute of an ol>jeet. The; jx^neil may also h(^ thought 
in eonnciction with sonn; other object and th(} rela- 
tional activity of mind is brought into mho in (ixpress- 
ing the thought that th(^ [xaicil li(;s on th(^ table. 
The prevoHition (on) is that part of 8pe(;(di 
whndi (^xpr(!sses a reflation and whieli 
gov(;rns an obj(;ct. 

Since the interjection is an (expression of (^motion 
or isolat(»d fe(;ling, and not the; result of thought 
it is not a part of si)e(;ch. It is not an ehinuent of 
i\n) s(int(enc(i and, lik(i the expl(;tiv(i, has 
no grammatical relation with otlier words. 
lN;rha[)S, Uwra anv otluer parts of si)(M',eh whieli may 
b(e "dug out" of th(; l(;ad-[)(ineil by otlier f)rocess(;s 
of thought. W(i have; thought out eight diffcerent 
id(;as in relation to tin; jxencil (th(; infinitive and 
partieiphi having tin; sarrne function of thought). 
We think again and again to s(!(; if th(;n; ,,;i^,,^ 

an) oth(;r n(;w relations possibh; for tint if'»'vtio,iM 
expnjssion of thought. Since the; human mind is 
not abl(; to think a thing under inont tlian (eight 
distinct relations (t(in categori(3S })y Aristotle) 
there are only eight parts of speech. 

This is th(i objectiv(e rruethod in grammar and 
expnesses the genetic principle which brings the 
11 



162 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

science into existence. This same thought 
Genetic powcF dividcs the parts of speech into 
their divisions and subdivisions, and classi- 
fies the subject-matter of grammar according to 
the law of mental activity. Grammar is the science 
of the sentence and the sentence is the basis of all 
work in language lessons, composition, reading, 
grammar, rhetoric, philology and linguistics. 
Thoughts are classified into those having the intel- 
lectual phase prominent, those having the emotional 
phase prominent and those having the volitional 
phase prominent. The thought sentence is divided 
into the declarative and the interrogative. The 
feeling sentence is exclamatory and the willing 
sentence, imperative. 

In studying the evolution of a sentence it is 
interesting to note that it is organic not mechanical, 
that it originates in a sentence-germ, a kind of 
psychological fire-mist and that it grows 
Of a and develops according to certain psy- 

chological and sociological conditions. The 
sentence is evolved out of the inner consciousness 
of the mind, differentiates itself into the parts of 
speech and hence is not a mechanical process of 
coupling words together. The law of sentence 
evolution and growth may be illustrated as follows: 
While sharpening my pencil I accidentally cut my 
finger and exclaimed, "Ouch! I cut my finger.'' 
Before the thought originated, before the sentence 
was expressed, there was a confused, vague, un- 
differentiated feeling of pain, a jelly-like mass of 



THE METHOD 163 

thought which was first expressed in the so-called 
interjection (an expression of feeling and not of 
thought) and which finally develops into the sen- 
tence. Feeling, we are told in psychology, is the 
basis of all conscious life which develops itself into 
a two-stemmed thought, self and cutting, the agent 
and the manner in which the agent acted. As 
thought develops the sentence branches, divides 
and subdivides in proportion to the intensity and 
breadth of thought. The diagram is an X-Ray 
photograph which pictures the sentence anatomy 
and is a valuable device, since it shows the law of 
growth and development of the sentence. 

Pedagogy of the Adjective. — An intense study 
is now made of the adjective to illustrate how the 
fact in the thing harmonizes with the law in the 
mind. An adjective has been defined as a word 
which describes an attribute of an object. An 
attribute is an energy working through matter 
and limits and defines the nature of a thing. Ad- 
jectives are developed in accordance with the nature 
of attributes and are usually found in pairs. If 
the adjective has no mate it has either lost its 
original meaning or its mate has become obsolete. 
The adjective differs from the other parts of speech 
in excluding the antagonist; good, bad; large, 
small; asleep, awake; alive, dead. In teaching 
the adjective it is necessary to understand the 
thought distinctions between the classes of adjec- 
tives. Limiting adjectives leave out objects, as 
ten mice; qualifying adjectives leave out attributes, 



164 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

as white mice; the limiting adjectives exclude all 
mice except the ten and the qualifying adjectives 
exclude all except the white. Again qualifying 
Thought adjectives individualize, as black ink; 
Distinctions predicate adjectives universalize, as ink 
is black. In the former, black individualizes the 
ink to one particular kind and in the latter, black 
has a wider sweep of thought than ink and is said 
to universalize. It is the nature of the adjective to 
increase the comprehension and to decrease the 
extension. A red apple has a greater extension 
but less comprehension than a sweet, mellow, red 
apple. Limiting adjectives affect the extension 
while qualifying adjectives not only express the 
quality but limit the extension. In the sentences — 
Mellow apples are good. — Ripe nuts are palatable. 
— the quality only is affected. In the sentences — 
Good boys die young. — Tall trees make long shad- 
ows. — the extent is affected. 

The nature of the adjective is such that it requires 
five movements of mind to think it. First, the mind 
perceives the adjective, good chair, brittle chalk. 
Second, the mind images the meaning back of these 
words, as good accomplishes an end, and brittle 
expresses the idea of friability. In the third move- 
To Think ment of the mind, a comparison and 
The Adjective contrast is made of the form of the two 
words, good and brittle, and then of the meaning 
by comparing and contrasting the images back 
of the word. This movement of the mind is 
analytical -synthetical and notes likenesses and 



THE METHOD 165 

differences. The fourth movement in thinking the 
adjective is a process of reasoning, as follows: 

All good chairs are comfortable, 
/ This chair is comfortable, 

Therefore, this is a good chair. 

All brittle chalk is friable, 
This chalk is friable. 
Therefore, this chalk is brittle. 

In thinking the adjective the mind finally moves 
in a syllogistic process which is a form of thought 
in obtaining any knowledge. Lastly, the mind 
generalizes, names and gives a logical definition 
of the adjective as follows: An adjective is a word 
which describes the name of an object. 

In teaching this part of speech it is necessary to 
take into consideration the thought in the thing 
and the law in the mind. The objective method is 
the energy producing attributes, the activity creat- 
ing adjectives and the force necessary to their 
classification. The subjective method is 

Object and 

the activity of mind in thmkins; the Subject 

United 

adjective, the spiritual energy translat- 
ing it into the mind and the mental force trans- 
muting the real into the ideal. It makes a study 
of how the mind acquires the knowledge of the 
adjective, how the adjective is changed into the 
self, and how the self becomes the adjective. 

In studying and teaching the adjective, the 
pupil's mind follows the five processes of thought 
in learning it, while the teacher's mind follows the 



166 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

pupil's mind in each process, thinks the pupil's 
mind into unity with the adjective, and brings the 
adjective into harmony with the mind of the pupil 
and assists him in making it a part of his thought. 
The adjective now becomes translated 

Teaching 

And Learning into the pupll's Ufc, affccts hls character 
and aids in the evolution of the individual. 
To think an adjective is merely to gain the thought 
processes in it, but to teach it is to transmute the 
thought and spirit into the mind and soul of the 
pupil, to the end of knowledge, character, growth, 
development and spiritual freedom. The pupil 
realizes himself in the adjective and the adjective 
attains its final purpose, when both are reconciled, 
and harmonized into freedom of thought and free- 
dom of life. 

The Law in the Mind. — It is difficult to discuss 
the fact in the thing without taking into considera- 
tion the law in the mind. The subjective method 
Subjective IS the activity or force which transmutes 
Method ^Yie ideas and thought of subject-matter 
into the living energy of mind. It is that activity 
which makes the facts of history, grammar and 
other studies subjective to the thinking mind. 
There is a method which creates the parts of speech 
and another mental process which makes them a 
part of the mind's constitution. The former has 
been called the thought in the thing and the latter 
the law in the mind. These two modes of activity 
are distinct and apart, yet resolvable into each 
other. Knowledge has been defined as an organic 



THE METHOD 167 

process existing between subject and object. All 
mental growth or development is a process of 
adjusting the subject to the mind, of translating 
the subjective into the objective, of mind identi- 
fying itself with matter and of the internal unifying 
itself with the external. This doctrine of method is 
corroborated by the following authors. 

Dr. Arnold Tompkins in his discussion of the uni- 
versal law of teaching, maintains that: 

"The universal problem of method is, how the learning mind 
identifies itself with the objective world to the end of growth, — 
how the subjective becomes one with the objective, in the process 
called knowledge." 

Prof. Howard Sandison defines method as follows: 

"A real activity according to, and in harmony with an ideal 
activity. " 

He further writes: 

"Method is the fundamental movement of mind in the exami- 
nation of an object with reference to a given attribute that has been 
exalted and emphasized by the mind's interests." 

Rosenkranz in discussing the logical presup- 
position of instruction sets forth a similar doctrine: 

"The subject must be adapted to the consciousness of the pupil. 
.... The living mediation of the pupil with the content which is 
to be impressed upon his consciousness is the work of the teacher. " 

He means by this that the subject-matter must 
be adjusted and adapted to the mind taught and 
there is an interpenetration between the mind of 
the pupil and the thought of the lesson. 



168 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Dr. Charles DeGarmo in his preface of '' Essentials 
of Method" gives the same thought; namely, that 
there is a method in the child and a method in the 
subject of study. He would have the method in 
the subject to harmonize with the stages of growth 
in the mind of the child. As the subject develops 
it must correspond to the identical development 
of the learning mind. 

Dr. R. N. Roark in speaking of mind and 
method writes : 

"To knowledge of the subject-matter, and knowledge of mind 
and mind growth, he (the teacher) must add knowledge of how 
to bring subject-matter and growing mind into such contact as 
shall cause mind to react normally on knowledge-material, and to 
acquire, assimilate and express. " 

These educational thinkers are trying to solve 
the problem, how mind becomes matter or how 
matter becomes mind; how history becomes mind 
or how mind becomes history; how mind becomes 
grammar and how grammar becomes mind. The 
law in the mind attempts to solve the problem, how 
a lesson may be transformed into human conscious- 
ness, or how the human mind takes on those forms 
of thought found in the objective world. 

Mind Movement in Method. — The fundamental 
movement of consciousness in gaining knowledge is 
a thinking process. To think a thing is to unify 
To Think "the thought in the thing with the law in 
A Thing ^Yie mind. There are four phases in this 
process: Perceptive thinking, analytical thinking, 
synthetical thinking and thought thinking. To 



THE METHOD 16^ 

illustrate these stages in the process of knowing, 
the human eye may be made the basis of thinking. 
By perceptive thinking the mind differentiates the 
eye from the other parts of the body. The mind 
first grasps the eye dimly, vaguely and in an in-- 
distinct manner. By analytical thinking the eye 
is analyzed into its parts and attributes; namely, 
coats; sclerotic, chorioid, retina, and humors; 
aqueous, vitreous, crystalline lens and into other 
parts. The next stage of thinking, the synthetical, 
unifies and organizes all parts and attributes into 
a completed whole. The mind is a unity and is not 
satisfied with multiplicity, but seeks constantly to 
synthesize what it originally analyzed. In the last 
stage of knowledge, thought thinks thought as the 
creative energy of the eye. The mind recognizes 
its own process in the processes constituting the 
eye. To understand the intelligence in the eye is 
to see the self reflected in it. Both the eye and the 
mind are the unfolding of the eternal process of 
the universe and both must be finally unified in 
teaching and learning into a bond of spiritual 
freedom. 

In the fundamental movement of mind the vague 
feeling becomes enlightened feeling, dim knowledge 
becomes clear knowledge, and the thing thought, 
becomes the self. 

Method in History. — The thought in history i& 
the active energy bringing events into existence, 
as — The First Steamboat — The Purchase of Louisi- 
ana — The Boston Tea Party — The Panama CanaL 



170 TITF. EDUCATION A I. IMiOCMCSS 

Thought '^'^'<' 1^^^ i'^ ^^*^' iniiid is IIh; i)roc(;ss of 
'" '"""^- ('li;in<^in^ i})(^ event with its ideas, thoughts, 
reelin<i;s juid volitions into the inn(;r constitution 
of tlie liiunjin soul. llist/OF-y li.'is iin erriotional 
(;l(!rn(Md; whicJi trains and afleets tin; f(;elin^s, as — 
th(; death of IVIeKinley, the; duel of Hamilton and 
I)UJ'i*, and the spirit of patiiotism wliieh touches, 
arous(;s, and dcivc^lops tin; (!inotional nature; of the 
(diild. Many j)assag(!S in history stir up th(; child 
to do things and give liini an inif)uls(; to higlier 
lile, as -'' I'll try, sir!" ''Don't give; up th(; ship!" 
'M'vc; just b(;gun to liglit!" arid "I'll fight it out on 
tliis line if it tak(;s jdl sunniu^r!" 

To illustrate; the law in the mind and tin; fact in 
the thing, a study is made of "Tin; 1^'irst Htoam- 
boat." 'J'h(; first step in studying an (;v(;nt is to 
I.UW ill seize dirrdy tlu; imag(!ry of the to])ic. 

'iim Miii.i jjj ijj^^ next movement the mind analyzes 
the (;vent into, ('lermord-, Robert T'ldton, Hudson 
River, !<S()7 and otluu* attributes, parts, ideas and 
thoughts. These isolated attributes and i)arts are 
not "Tlu; First Steand)()at" and so the mind must 
synthesize; tlu^sc; (^hvmcuits into the original whole, 
and the indistinct knowhulge bcicomes truly the self. 
In the last step the |)upil rethiidvs the thought of 
I'^ulton as he thought out the; st(;and)()at and he^nce 
arrived at the genetic; ])rinciple of tlu; ev(;nt. He 
r(;cognizes "The First Steamboat" as a thought 
process, it becomes Ik;, and he becomes it. 

Method in history can be understood and ex- 
plain(;d only by a knowl(;dge of the facts and prin- 



THE METHOD 171 

ciples of history and by an analysis of the pacts 

powers and processes of mind. History PiusMmd 
must be resolved into mind processes and mind 
must be mediated, adjusted to the historic process. 
Each element in history must be organically related 
to a corresponding element of mind; perception to 
perception, image to image and thought to thought. 
Should an event be presented to a child involving 
an abstract process of reasoning the teaching act 
would be unpedagogical because the child's mind is 
not in harmony with the higher form of mental life. 
Were it possible for a teacher to know the inner 
constitution of history and to have at the same 
time a delicate knowledge of the out-croppings of 
the human mind, then teaching would be based 
upon an exact science and philosophy. 

Dr. W. H. Mace has clearly analyzed the history 
process into five institutional ideas: Political, 
religious, educational, social and industrial. Each 
of these fundamental principles represents institutional 
a great institution — government, church, ^"^^^"^ 

school, family and occupation. According to 
this doctrine, history is a stream of growing insti- 
tutional ideas and deals with the complete life of 
a people. 

Primary history should be individual, biographical 
and should be written in a most pleasing story form 
to introduce the child to the local institu- Primary 
tional life. The mayor, preacher, teacher, uintory 

the social organizer, and the manufacturer should 
be studied to introduce the child into a knowledge 



172 TJIl^: I<:i)UCATIONAL PROCESS 

of institutional life. After the child has studied 
thes(5 different institutional ideas, in his own com- 
munity, he should be Icul to study tlie same facts 
in the county, state and nation. lie is now 
introduced into the realm of history i)ro[)er and 
must study national characters representing the 
five institutional ideas: Political, Thomas Jef- 
ferson; religious, John Wesley; educational, John 
Harvard; industrial, Thomas Edison; social, Jane 
Addams. 

In the intermediates grades the historic process 
changers from biographical studies to that of com- 
munity life. The live institutional ideas are dis- 
intonnediate cusscd, uot as coustitutiug iudividuals, 
n.Mtory i^^^i^ embodying a body politic. In the 

local community tlus town council is studied to 
represent the i)olitical idea; the church, religious; 
the city school, educational; the bank corporation, 
industrial and the Tennyson Club, the social. After 
Uu) j)upil has studied many examples of local insti- 
tutional life*, in city, county and state, he is prepared 
to study tlus complexities of national life; namely — 
])()litical, Dcsclaration of Inch^ixMidcMice and Consti- 
tution of the United States; religious. The Christian 
Endeavor and Ecumenical Conference; educational, 
Th(s Smithsonian Institution and The National 
University; social, Social Settlements and Fraternal 
Onha's; industrial. The United States Steel Cor- 
poration and tlu; International Harvester Company. 
Tin* pupil nuist study and realize that history treats 
of the entire life of a people and that he must under- 



THE METHOD 173 

stand that the central and organizing principle of 
history is the growth of institutional lif(^ 

Method in history shows how these objective 
institutional ideas are to become subjective; to the 
thinking mind. It adjustS; adapts and mediates 
these thoughts, found in human events, Method 

to the corresponding phas(;s of growth in ^" ni«tory 
the life of a child. The child's political, religious, 
educational, industrial and social life are adjusted 
to similar phases of life exhibited in the growth and 
development of a nation. The diffen^nt stages of 
child life are developed in and through a study of 
similar phas(!S of national life. 

Method in Language. — Method in sp(;lling, lan- 
guage and composition is based upon the funda- 
mental unity b(;tween the mind and the thing it 
thinks. In spelling the mental move- Mental 

ment is to see the word, to picture the M'^vcment 
image upon which the word depends and to analyze 
it into letters, sounds and syllables. These mental 
attributes are synthesized and the word is thereby 
transmuted into mind substance. In this last act 
mind thinks mind as embodied in the meaning of 
words. 

The external means used in this mental move- 
ment are objects, pictures and stories. In order to 
intensify the interest, to bring the motor into use, 
and to put the child in a receptive; atti- 
tude, the object and picture should be 
pasted on the composition paper. Beautiful pic- 
tures of a horse, house, apple, berry, peach, plum, 



174 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

pear, peas, melon, grapes, lion, dog, sheep, are 
inspiring and thought-producing. A combination 
of form and color, as a red square, a blue triangle, 
a purple rectangle, a green circle, a pink pentagon, 
and a white oval is in harmony with the law of 
correlation, and introduces the child into the 
meaning of words. 

In the realm of perceptive thinking, the child 
is led into the world of objective reality, by 
observing, by absorbing and by inquiring the 
name, the word and the spelling of objects. In 
the first mental movement '^ Words, words, words" 
are to be taught the child from an infinite number 
of objects. 

The next step in language is to combine words — 
orally, then in writing — into sentences, paragraphs 
and discourse. In order to bring the child's motor 
Motor activity into use and as a means of "busy 

Activity work" the child pastes objects and pic- 
tures upon paper preparatory to writing a composi- 
tion. Such objects as lead, glass, tea, spice, nutmeg, 
sugar, salt, ostrich feather, fish scales, sponge, 
cotton, silk, rubber, sand, etc., are inspiring, stimu- 
lating, and thought-producing. The Perry pictures 
or the Cosmos pictures, including master pieces of 
art, are especially adapted to composition work. 
The pupil now writes from internal interest and 
not from external pressure. He is brimful of 
interest and writes because it is a pleasure. It is 
said that when Longfellow was required to write 
his first composition, after making several unsuc- 



THE METHOD 175 

cessful attempts, he informed his teacher that he 
could not write it. The teacher requested him to 
leave the school-room, to talk to himself about 
some object, to put this talk on paper and he would 
accept it as a composition. It is said while Long- 
fellow was sitting on the fence looking at 
Mr. Finney's turnip-patch, he was in- 
spired to write his first poem. Longfellow was so 
intensely interested in the turnip that the com- 
position was spontaneously created. The idea of 
the turnip in the mind of the youth pressed for 
utterance. He had a message to communicate and 
felt a joy and pleasure in expressing his thoughts. 
His ideas were externalized in sentences and stanzas 
and the result of this objectification of ideas and 
thoughts was a composition. 

Themes in Composition. — Themes in composition 
should follow the law of universal creation. The 
fundamental law of the world is a process, a be- 
coming, a cycle, a return-to-itself. Compositions 
should accord and harmonize with the actual 
processes of nature. The various members of a 
class should write a narration of the complete 
process found in the life, growth and development 
of an oak tree, for example, to illustrate this funda- 
mental principle: The themes should be the acorn, 
the process of germination, the roots, the trunk, 
the branches, the leaves, the blossoms, the fruit 
and the acorn. The movement in the composition 
should follow the fundamental movement in the 
tree. This process or cycle is a cosmic principle 



176 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

which Spinoza says should be thought under the 
form of eternity. 

THE CYCLE OF THE DRAGON-FLY. 

"To-day I saw the dragon-fly- 
Come from the wells where he did lie. 
An inner impulse rent the veil 
Of his old husk; from head to tail 
Came out clear plates of sapphire mail. " 

— Tennyson. 

This poetry is given simply to illustrate the idea 
of the cycle. To emphasize the value of the process, 
the becoming, the cycle, the return-to-itself, "The 
Cycle of the Dragon- Fly" is given to show the 
movement of thought following the movement of 
creation. This discussion is taken from an article 
in The Inland Educator written by Prof. Howard 
Sandison. In order to make the activities of the 
mind in the composition correspond to the activi- 
ties of the dragon-fly, the arrangement of the proc- 
ess is given on page 177. 

This cycle shows the metamorphosis or trans- 
formation of the dragon-fly. It gradually becomes 
more complex, more perfect and more free, and 
Iience realizes the purpose of its being. The dragon- 
fly attains its physical freedom, and the pupil in 
following, mentally, the physical process attains his 
spiritual freedom, so far as this object is concerned. 
This beautifully illustrates the doctrine that the law 
of thinking harmonizes with the law of being. There 
are certain objective categories in the dragon-fly 
that parallel certain subjective conditions of the 



THE METHOD 



177 



human mind. Those subjective laws or thoughts 
are the mind's way of thinking the objective world. 




1. The fly attaches its eggs to a stem of a water-plant. 2. The eggs hatch out 
into a bug-hke larva. 3. The larva walks about on the bottom of the lake. 
4. It leaps through the water. 5. It sees many insects. 6. It devours them. 
7. It grows very fast. 8. It grows too large for its shell-like skin. 9. It 
bursts its skin. 10. It throws off the bursted skin. 11. It moves through 
the water. 12. Its skin gradually hardens. 13. It eats many more insects. 
14. It outgrows its skin again. 15. It bursts its skin. IG. It throws off the 
outgrown skin. 17. It now appears as a pupa. 18. Its skin soon hardens. 
19. It moves about in the water. 20. It eats more insects. 21. It giows 
larger. 22. It approaches a water-plant. 23. It climbs upon the stem of a 
water-plant. 24. It reaches the open air above the water. 25. It grows too 
large for its skin again. 2G. It bursts its skin. 27. It casts off its outgrown 
skin. 28. It emerges a Dragon-Hy. 29. It clings to the stem of the water- 
plant. 30. Its skin hardens. 31. Its wings become dry. 32. It loosens its 
hold of the stem. 33. It flies through the air. 34. It glistens in the sun- 
light. 35. It hovers over the lake. 36. It alights on a water-plant. 37. 
It attaches its eggs to the stem of the water-plant. 

12 



178 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

CATEGORIES OF THINKING AND BEING. 

1. Substance. — The dragon-fly is an insect. 

2. Quantity. — The dragon-fly is two inches long. 

3. Quality. — Its wings become dry. 

4. Relation. — It emerges a dragon-fly. 

5. Place. — It attaches its eggs to a stem, 

6. Time. — It bursts when it grows large. 

7. Posture. — It alights upon a water-plant. 

8. Condition. — It grows larger. 

9. Action. — It flies through the air. 

10. Passion. — The dragon-fly is metamorphosed. 

The Final Doctrine of Method. — The doctrine of 
method is one with the doctrine of philosophy — 
to show the relation between the objective world 
and the subjective world. It is the law of the hu- 
man mind that it parallels in its function the law 
of the universe so far as its capacity is able to grasp. 
The result of the mind's return-to-self is spiritual 
freedom. The history and evolution of method 
bears a close resemblance to the history and develop- 
ment of philosophy. Originally, method was con- 
sidered an artificial or cunning device and later it 
Evolution implied a knowledge of certain psycho- 
of Method logical activities. Method is now consid- 
ered a fundamental movement of mind harmonizing 
with the central organizing principle of a subject. 
In the beginning of philosophy, water, fire, air and 
the infinite, were respectively elementary principles 
of the world. Later, spirit or nous became the 
foundation principle of the universe. The modern 
and more correct doctrine of the universe seems to 
unify mind and matter and that every thing is 



THE METHOD 179 

material and meaning. Nature is material and 
meaning, the piano is material and meaning — each 
is not material alone nor thought alone. The 
thought ''piano" revealed in and through a par- 
ticular material, the material and ideal unified in 
a concrete whole, constitute the piano. Method in 
teaching must explain this mysterious unity and 
show how subjects should be taught to harmonize 
with the above doctrine. 



XII. 

THE PURPOSE. 

The growth process in teaching has a movement, 
a method and a purpose. The movement is the 
general way in which the mind acts in learning, 
in and through the teaching process. The method 
is the process of harmonizing and unifying the outer 
world (the branches of study) with the inner life 
and thought of the pupil. The purpose 
of teaching is to inspire pupils to higher 
life and make them realize their true worth and 
destiny. Each act in teaching is purposive, every 
lesson recited has an end, and every process in 
education has for its final aim — the evolution of 
the individual. 

The Historic Purpose. — The history of education 
traces out the aims in education and the purposes 
in teaching and gives a setting or background for 
Old all educational thought and activity. Long 

Education ^^g^ ^^ great thinker said: The true pur- 
pose and destiny of man is to perfect himself. 
This end was attained by communicating rather 
than developing, by telling, showing, disciplining 
while the pupils memorized, listened and imitated. 
Physical training was cultivated simultaneously 
with mind training; thinking and talking, with 
running and jumping. Early educators insisted 
on a sound mind in a sound body and taught that 

180 



THE PURPOSE 181 

the real purpose in teaching is to arouse the self- 
activity of the pupil. To begin with sense-intui- 
tion, observation, induction, and experimentation, 
were fundamental principles, and all learning was 
thought to be naturally agreeable, provided the 
teacher starts with known truths and known concepts. 
Modern education as well as modern philosophy 
begin with the proposition, ''I think, therefore, 
I am." The individuaPs essential nature is found 
to be thought, mind, soul, intelligence, New 

reason, and that all education has for its Education 
ultimate purpose — the training in thought power. 
This led to the doctrine that spiritual activity 
ends in knowledge, and that knowledge enables the 
individual to act rationally and, therefore, makes 
him free. The whole educational movement be- 
comes a process; the school is a process; teaching 
is a process; thinking is a process; life is a process, 
and the universe itself is a process. Teachers began 
to preach the gospel of universal education and 
insisted upon a harmonious and uniform develop- 
ment of all the powers and faculties of mind. The 
ultimate purpose in teaching is realized by using the 
following principles: 

1. Activity is the law of childhood; educate the hand; accustom 
the child to do. 

2. Cultivate the faculties in their natural order; first form the 
mind — then furnish it. 

3. Begin with the senses and never tell a child what he can find 
out for himself. 

4. Reduce every subject to its element; one difficulty at a time 
is enough for a child. 



182 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

5. Proceed step by step; the measure of informa- 
Of'Teaching *^^^ ^^ ^°* what the teacher can give but what the 
child can receive. 
6 Let every lesson have a point, either immediate or remote. 

7. Develop the idea and then give the term; cultivate language. 

8. Proceed from the known to the related unknown; from the 
particular to the general; from the concrete to the abstract; from 
the simple to the difficult. 

9. First synthesis and then analysis, not the order of the sub- 
ject, but the order of nature. 

These fundamental principles of teaching are next 
combined with the old education, and psychical 
life is considered a kind of dynamic chemistry 
The Old in of idcas, and consciousness is said to 
The New dcpcud upou the tcusion and intensity 
of ideas. If ideas are pressed below the threshold 
of consciousness they become impulses. This 
psychology (called by some mythical) explains how 
new ideas are assimilated to old ones — apperception. 
Psychology becomes the basis of all work in ped- 
agogy and the final purpose of education is moral 
training. This pedagogical theory may be con- 
trasted with the educational doctrine that education 
is conscious evolution. ''The Prince of Educators" 
makes all teaching a development of self-activity 
induced by certain external stimuli. Acquisition, 
assimilation, and expression of knowledge must be 
a work of liberty and spontaneity. 

The final purpose of teaching and education is to 
transform the child's potence into actu- 
ality. Education is a growth in self-con- 
sciousness and leads the individual into a reflective 
consideration of self as estranged from self. Spirit 



THE PURPOSE 183 

objectifies itself, rethinks itself, and becomes con- 
scious of its own essence. This doctrine culminates in 
self-realization and perfection, the final and supreme 
aim in all teaching and education. 

Means and End. — The teacher should have a 
clear distinction between efficient cause or means 
in teaching and final cause or end in life. The 
teaching act employs certain external factors, text- 
books, apparatus, and knowledge which are neces- 
sary to accomplish a definite aim in life. To the 
thoughtful teacher every process in teaching, every 
law in government and every principle in Efficient and 
education presuppose some definite end ^mai cause 
in life thought out. The ideal teacher does not 
teach a subject until he realizes what effect it may 
have upon the final purpose and destiny of the pupil. 
The purpose in the life of a child should be thor- 
oughly understood and made the basis of every 
movement in teaching. To teach in a hap-hazard 
way, without foreseeing the end in each act, is to 
fail to teach in the true sense of the word. 

The school is an organized product of mind and 
has inherent in it a reciprocal relationship between 
means and end. There is nothing purposeless in 
the school; nothing that is not determined by the 
original school idea which brought it into existence. 
This fundamental teleological principle organizes 
the school and determines the universal law in 
teaching. It is that final cause which the teacher 
holds in mind while molding the efficient factors 
into terms of life. The design in teaching is a 



184 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Teaching moving fopcG which realizes itself in the 
Purposive pupil's life through certain efficient forces 
found in the recitation. Teaching is a purposive 
act and aims not at knowledge acquired, and pages 
recited, but at the complete evolution of the in- 
dividual into a higher and nobler life. It is not 
merely an intellectual, social, sesthetical and moral 
process, but has a deep design hidden in its nature 
that leads the pupil into unity with the purpose of 
the world. 

When the teacher studies the parts of the school 
and their organic relation to each other, he is in 
the realm of efficient causes; but when he considers 
the purpose of the school, in relation to life, he is 
led to contemplate and study final causes of the 
educational process. The pedagogical student can- 
not understand the aim of a process in teaching 
by examining the machinery, but must penetrate 
into the inner subjective school to get an idea of 
its purpose or design. The nature of a thing is not 
found in sense perception, but in reason which 
constitutes its essence. To understand the nature 
of the school is to penetrate its creative energy and 
Purpose to uudcrstaud its creative purpose. The 
Creative school cau bc explained only by knowl- 
edge of the idea and end of its existence. It is not 
based upon mechanical laws, but requires a principle 
having a definite end in view. This principle ex- 
plains the ultimate purpose of the school and gives 
a definite aim in teaching. The teacher must be 
able to look beneath the multiplied activities of 



THE PURPOSE 185 

the school and detect the all-sufficient cause which 
gives law to its existence. To distinguish the 
teaching process as design from the teaching process 
based upon mechanical laws is to understand that 
universal factor which determines the various 
activities of the school and gives a clue to its purpose. 
The understanding conceives the school as a whole 
depending upon its parts, while the intuitive in- 
sight arrives at the inner content and meaning of 
the forces and factors depending upon the whole. 
To think the school and its function is to trace 
back its final cause which realizes itself through 
certain external paraphernalia. The idea of design 
bridges the chasm between the objective and sub- 
jective school and shows that means in teaching 
should be in harmony with the final aim in educa- 
tion. To study the aim in teaching is to use the 
heuristic principle of inquiring into its inner nature 
and to understand the relation between Finality in 
means and end. There is a finality in Teaching 
every process in teaching which must have a cause. 
This cause does not lie in the external objective 
school, but in the inner spirit and life of the organism. 
The end in thought creates the school and moves 
forward to its realization through certain means 
adapted to its expression and purpose. To attain 
a maximum skill in teaching is to grasp firmly the 
fundamental aim in education which is one with 
the purpose of life. 

The Supreme Purpose. — The supreme aim in 
teaching is to transform knowledge into life, to 



186 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

make grammar, arithmetic, history and other sub- 
jects life unfolding instruments. Teaching unites 
the not-self with the self by means of a spiritual 
principle which is presupposed in the difference of 
subject and object. The entire life of the school is 
a reciprocal action between these two forces whose 
resultant is knowledge and culture. We can know 
the object only in unity with the self and we can 
know the subject only as it is realized in the object. 
The final aim in teaching is to recognize that sub- 
jects of study exist in opposition to and in relation 
to the mind and that the self exists only as it realizes 
itself in history, grammar, etc. Grammar is opposed 
to mind yet contains an element which sustains an 
organic relation to mind. Subject-matter and mind 
are extreme terms representing a difference which 
is essential to rational life. The subject presupposes 
the object yet both are rooted in a higher spiritual 
principle which indicates a unity in difTerence. It 
Final Aim ^^ the purposc of tcachlug to show the 
In Teaching pgjation bctweeu subject and object, inner 
and outer experience, and to understand how these 
two elements are distinguished, yet never dis- 
jointed. The teacher's duty is to unite and relate 
the consciousness of the subject, to the conscious- 
ness of the individual studying. There is no impas- 
sable gulf between the inner and outer world, but 
there is organic unity in their difference. The life 
of the child is not disjointed from all outer experi- 
ence for his inner self is nothing but a return upon 
himself from the outer world. The teaching process 



THE PURPOSE 187 

clearly reveals the fact that self-consciousness, cut 
off from the objective world, is an absurdity and 
that the branches of study can be understood only 
in relation to the thinking self. The movement by 
which the teacher transforms subject-matter and 
makes it the basis for spiritual development, is 
an evolutionary process which manifests that 
unitary principle conditioning and underlying all 
life. A deep study of modern science, literature 
and philosophy discloses the fact that the teacher 
is the polar opposite of the child and that the ob- 
jective world, as the ultimate expression of the 
curriculum, is the all-sufficient, unitary, eternal 
force which organizes these seemingly contradic- 
tory elements into a bond of spiritual freedom. 

According to Kant the impulse which stimulates 
us to grow is due to three ideas — the world, the self 
and God. Our intelligence is based upon a pre- 
supposition of these ideas and are the final aims in 
knowledge. One purpose in teaching is to demon- 
strate the unity of the world amidst its complexities 
and to show the interconnections and relations 
existing between the different parts and laws. To 
interpret the outer world the mind must seek an 
ultimate unity revealed in differences between 
object and subject. According to a great modern 
thinker, ''Every step toward the conception of the 
world or of any part of it as a system, every step 
toward the comprehension of the unity of the intelli- 
gence in all the variety of its activities, every step 
toward a rational view of the relation between 



188 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Unitary the intelligence and the intelligible world, 
Ideas |g ^ g^^p toward the verification and, in 

an etymological sense, the demonstration of the princi- 
ples of unity presupposed in the whole process." It 
should be the duty of the teacher to reduce the 
manifold, in the various lessons, to unitary ideas 
to be transmuted into mind substance. The true 
purpose in teaching is to trace the multiplicity of 
facts in a given subject back to its original creative 
source, as the facts of history back to its institu- 
tional ideas, and forms of sentences in grammar 
back to their original creative principle, and the 
numerous problems in arithmetic to the ratio idea 
and finally to unify these branches of study into a 
generic whole. 

To seek constantly for the unity of things lifts 
the student finally into the absolute unity of the 
world. Both the teacher and the pupil are forced 
Divine from the very nature of consciousness 

Unity itself to presuppose an Infinite Mind as 

the source of all consciousness and the first and 
last principle of all knowing and being. The ulti- 
mate purpose in teaching is to trace out the divine 
unity holding the world together and to induce the 
pupil to be a partaker of the divine idea and, there- 
fore, to attain his freedom. 

This supreme purpose in teaching has been dis- 
cussed to lead the teacher and the pupil into the 
highest conceptions of life and to make them 
responsive to the soul's true worth. These high 
ideals give the mind an impulse to know the world, 



THE PURPOSE 189 

to understand the secrets of the mind and finally 
to unify itself with the outer world through an 
infinite unity or God. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes most beautifully pic- 
tures the purpose of teaching and education: 

"Teacher of teachers! Yours the task, 
Noblest that noble minds can ask. 

High up Ionia's murmurous mount, 

To watch, to guard the sacred fount 
That feeds the streams below; 

To guide the hurrying flood that fills 

A thousand silvery rippling rills, 
In ever-wadening flow. 

" Rich is the harvest from the fields 
That bounteous Nature kindly yields; 

But fair growths enrich the soil 

Ploughed deep by thought's unwearied toil, 
In Learning's broad domain. 

And where the leaves, the flowers, the fruits. 

Without your watering at the roots, 
To fill each branching vein? 

"Welcome! Author's firmest friends. 
Your voice the surest godspeed lends. 

For you the growing mind demands 

The patient care, the guiding hands 
Through all the mists of morn. 

You knowing well the future's need. 

Your prescient wisdom sows the seed 
To flower in years unborn. " 



THE TEACHING PROCESS 

THE THINKING PROCESS 

XIII. 
THE LAW 

The fundamental law in teaching parallels the 
essential law in thinking. To teach a pupil is to 
cause him to think; to think is to translate object 
relations into mind substance; to know is to recog- 
nize the relations which constitute a thing. The 
organic elements of thinking are mind activity and 
a process of unifying mind with thought external 
to itself. Mind grows by identifying itself with 
mind embodied in the external world. It attains 
its freedom when it realizes its possibilities, and 
when it takes on to itself the spiritual content of 
the universe. T. H. Green says: 

"Our conception of an order of nature and the relations which 
form that order, have a common spiritual source. " 

By thinking, the individual enters into the inner 
essence of things. The thinker finds behind all 
things — thought. He discovers in things his other 
self, identifies himself with himself, and thus real- 
izes his true nature. In the learning process, the 
student finds in subject-matter a self-activity akin 
to his own nature. There are just two elements 
in all thought processes: the thinking mind and the 
thing to be taught. In studying botany the mind 
190 



THE LAW 191 

is one organic element and the plant is organic 
the other. The knowledge called botany ^^^"^'"'^ 
is a mental synthesis of mind life and plant life. 
When the object relations are grounded into sub- 
ject relations the result is called botany. In the 
ultimate analysis botany is mind rather than 
matter. It is that science which treats of the ideas 
and structure of plant life as interpreted by thought. 
The universal law of thinking may be expressed 
by the axiom given in method: The law in the 
mind must exactly correspond with the fact in the 
thing. The law of thinking requires a knowledge 
of mind activity and a scientific knowledge of 
things to be taught. 

Thinking and Teacliing. — In teaching, the teach- 
er unifies the mind process with the object 
process by thinking the two together. The move- 
ment in teaching differs from the movement in 
thinking. The former process consists in following 
the thought of the pupil, and the latter process 
consists in following the thought of the subject. 
Reason or thought is the essence of both the think- 
ing mind and the external world to be thought. 
If objective reality contains no thought, as a square 
fluid or a moral substance, it is unthinkable, for 
the mind cannot think that which has no thought 
element in it. To think the elephant is Reason 

to trace the thoughts embodied in its O'' Thought 
structure, in its attributes and in its function. 
It is a process of uniting certain relations in the 
mind to similar relations in the elephant. If the 



192 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

elephant contains no thought relations and there 
is nothing to which to tie mind relations, then it, 
too, is unthinkable. We are inevitably brought 
to the doctrine: *^The rational is the real and 
the real is the rational.'^ 

Essentials in Thinking. — An ancient thinker 
set forth the relations by which an object exists. 
A modern thinker made these objective relations 
the subjective laws of thought. The mind in think- 
ing an object takes on to itself a form of thought 
harmonizing with the passive thought in the thing. 
In the evolution and the history of thought, the 
next great thinker announced the doctrine 
that the law of thinking is equal to the 
law of being. The forms of thought found in things 
become the forms of consciousness. These two 
elements in thinking are organic because the proc- 
ess cannot exist without both. A recent thinker 
has worked out the most profound law of human 
thinking, as follows: To think a thing in existence 
is the same process as thinking the thing as coming 
into existence. 

Thinking Genetically. — To think a thing ge- 
netically is to trace the thought in the thing as 
it comes into existence. To think the house as it 
is, is to think it in the process of becoming. To 
think the apple genetically is to follow the apple 
Thinking process from the seed through the tree to 
In a Cycle ^YiQ fruit. The most fundamental process 
in thinking a thing is to think it in its return-to- 
itself; to think it as a cycle; to think it under the 



THE LAW 193 

form of eternity. To think the watch is to follow the 
watch process in the mind of the maker; to trace 
out the universal, ideal watch creatively; to note 
the universal becoming individual through the 
material; to observe the metal transformed to 
suit the ideal; to think the adjustment and organi- 
zation into a completed product. To think the 
watch in this manner is to transmute the watch 
process in its being and becoming into mind sub- 
stance. To think the chicken is to trace the vital 
process as it divides and differentiates itself from 
a vague whole to a perfected individual. Things 
in nature divide, compare, exemplify and define 
themselves, as it were, and to know these things is 
to change these processes into mind terms. A 
study of the thinking process gradually leads the 
student into the realm of ontogeny and embryology. 
The Movement in Thinking. — As thinking trans- 
mutes the object into the subject every conscious 
act is a thought process. There is one continued 
process of thinking from sensation to reason. The 
function of each mental act is to organize the world 
without with the world within through a common 
spiritual principle. Thinking in sensation 
is the act of uniting the ego with the ^"^^ '^"^ 
external world through the senses. The factors in 
sensation are the world of experience to be internal- 
ized, the bodily organism as the medium of com- 
munication between mind and matter, and the 
psychical activity which negates and transmutes 
the object into mind terms. In this lowest stage 
13 



194 TUK lODIKJATIONAL IMrOCI<:SS 

of tliirikin^ Uic inliid /';rn,(lu<'iJly jniHH(!H from l\i(\ 
L'xt(;niul U) llw; ii»l(;rn{il. "How tli(^ iniiriaifirijil ('an 
l)(i unii(Ml wiUi iiniiicr," snyH Sir Willinin Iljuriilion, 
"is l,li(' iiiy.sl,('ry of iiiy.slcrics to man." In regard 
io ilii.s problem ma,l,('rialiMm aJIirms tlia,t menial 
Hc.t/ivily in <hie lo .som*' form of molecular njol/ion. 
According to (lna,li,sm Uie unii,y heUveen mind and 
inattt^r Ih inc^omprelntn.sihle. Idea,li.sm nnik( s llu; 
()l)j(5ctiv(; world a ma,nifeHtalion of njind with wirndi 
it Ix'come.s iniil-ed. Ocrcasionalinm mainta,inH that 
mind can know mailer only tlirou^*;!! the inteiven- 
iion of (jiod. According:; to the doctrim; of prc- 
<'ista,l)li.sh(ul Intrmony, (Jod by divin(^ liat e.sta,l)liHlies 
a harmonion.s relationship between mind and mattor. 
in perceptiv(^ thiidvin/i; the mind HcizcH some 
Hpecial object in the stream of .sensation, identifiers 
it with itself and |»aiti(tnlarizes it in the outei" world. 
The movement of the mind in per('ej)l/K)n 
has a three fold a(d,ivity: Impression is 
a speciali/inji; of the object ami the mind in a,n 
involuntary way; attention is the con(M'ntra,l-ion 
(►f the mind upon a, pari iculai' object and a, unihca- 
tion of the object with the self. TIh^ mind attends 
t-o those objects in whi(di it has an inl-erest. An 
object is iid.er(\stin^ vvhicdi assists the spirit in ;';a,in- 
in^ its freedom. In attention i\\v mind particular- 
izes itself, the object is parti(tularize(l and ideated. 
Attention is, peda|^o<i;ically speaking, the funda- 
mental r(5quiHite of the s(diool. A tea,(dier must liav(; 
the ability to aiouse inteicst and thereby ^aiii 
attention or tin; ti^achinjj; act will ha a failure. 



THE LAW 195 

Pupils must realize that the subject studied lies 
between their real and ideal condition of life, and 
that it is essential to their self-realization. The third 
process in perceptive thinking is retention which 
makes the ideated object permanent in conscious- 
ness. Retention is secured by following the maxim 
— Repetition is the mother of wisdom. Drilling 
and testing, in various ways, deepen the retentive 
process and are valuable exercises in teaching the 
different subjects. 

In apperceptive thinking the mind assimilates, 
integrates and internalizes the external. It is a 
process by which the mind gives significance or 
meaning to mental products. In apperception the 
mind gains new knowledge through the related old. 
Early education should develop the apperceptive 
mass and give the pupil a basic foundation for 
later knowledge. Herbart gave apper- 

,. ., , ' 'n 1 1 'x Apperception 

ception its true significance and made it 
the corner-stone of his pedagogy. The term was 
originated by Leibnitz who used it in the sense of 
self-consciousness. Apperception has a deep peda- 
gogical value. Thinking is apperceptive, learning 
is apperceptive and the whole educational process 
is based upon the doctrine that knowledge assimi- 
lates knowledge. 

Representative thinking deals with the image 
and is the intermediate mental state between per- 
ceiving the object and thinking thought. The 
human mind in its evolution passes from sense 
perception through the image to the supreme mental 



196 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

act known as thinking. The stages of knowing are 
sensing, imaging and thinking. In perception the 
mind is trying to internalize the external. Imaging 
is a process of looking at the percept from within. 
It is the mind's view of the object as seen apart 
from it. In the movement of the mind in memory- 
thinking the image of the object is separated, 
identified, retained, recalled, recollected, 
represented, and recognized. The image 
is not stored away in some brain-cell and memory 
is not ''habit working in the nerve-centres." The 
mind is not local but ideal and immaterial. Memory 
is unfolded genetically out of the mind's own proc- 
ess and its essential characteristic is recalling the 
image. The law of association is found in the mind's 
own process which is unitary and dual. 

"No external law can bind forever the ego whose essence is to 
be self-legislative." 

Imaginative thinking reproduces the image and 
separates it into form and meaning. The image is 
not a copy of the object but now becomes a copy 
of the mind itself. ''The alien copy of external 
nature is now to undergo a transformation till the 
ego can see itself; see its own meaning in the image. 
Previously the ego has been chiefly a mirror of the 
outside world, and the image has been 
a true likeness of the object. But the 
ego is more than the simple mirror, it in its inner- 
most essence is also the thing mirrored." The 
imagination does not reproduce the image as in 



THE LAW 197 

memory but puts new meaning into the object 
itself. The whole movement of imagination hinges 
upon the mind's scission into symbol and signifi- 
cance. Gesture, voice and picture-making are 
forms of symbolism in which the mind is struggling 
for freedom. The dual form of mind activity be- 
comes more and more pronounced and is illustrated 
by the symbolic expressions in literature, i.e., 
metaphor, parable, simile, riddle, oracle, pun, fable, 
proverb, apologue, personification, allegory. The 
myth and the fairy-tale are a species of symbolism 
that respond to the life of the child. The modern 
novel is a form of conscious symbolism in which 
life is expressed directly without the intervening of 
a deity, as in Homer. The mind in its imaginative 
thinking passes from symbolic art to classic and 
attains its highest activity in romantic art. Froebel 
understood the value of the symbol in education 
and made it the centre of his system. The mind 
gradually passes from a knowledge and use of the 
symbol to the word which reveals thought. 

In the highest stage of thinking the mind recog- 
nizes itself to be the object, and the object to be 
what the self is. It is a process of thought thinking 
thought. Thought now grasps thought 
as the creative energy of the world. In 
thinking the tree the mind seizes its genetic principle 
which is a manifestation of divine thought. The 
mind in thinking a manufactured article unifies 
itself with finite thought which brought it into 
existence. Objective thought is in the outer world; 



198 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

subjective thought is in the mind. Thinking is a 
process of uniting the two into a bond of knowledge. 

" Psychology is an evolution of the ego ever separating from itself 
yet ever returning into itself in larger and larger cycles till it 
embraces the universe. " 

In the onward sweep of thought in grasping the 
objective world, the mind passes through three 
stages of psychical activity, i.e., understanding, 
ratiocination and reason. According to Kant there 
are two stems of knowledge: sense and under- 
standing. By means of the category of identity, 
the understanding grasps the thought of the thing 
immediately without any process of reasoning. It 
probes into the inner nature of things and enters 
into the realm of law, force and cause. Under- 
Under- staudiug iu its primary act apprehends 

standing ^^iQ objcct immediately. Apprehension 
presupposes distinction which is made up of ab- 
straction and discrimination. In abstraction the 
mind thinks apart from the object some quality 
or property belonging to it. It does not grasp the 
genetic movement of the object but only certain 
external characteristics. 

"Abstraction cracks the shell of externality by its separation, 
and opens the door to knowledge." 

To understand an object is also to discriminate, 
to compare, to classify. 

"In classifying objects the imderstanding is reaching out for 
their creative principle, for that which differentiates them, yet 
restores them to unity. " 



THE LAW 199 

In classification the mind dwells in the realm of 
cause originating things, force creating cause and 
law manifesting both. Force manifests itself and 
perishes; law is the permanent amid the variable. 

The combined movement of the mind in con- 
ception, judgment and reasoning has been called 
ratiocination. Identity is the category of the 
understanding but difference is the category of 
ratiocination. The ratiocinative process 

Ratiocination 

creates forms which are necessary tor 
the expression of thought. The logical movement 
of thought is through concept, proposition and 
syllogism. The psychological movement is through 
conception, judgment and reasoning. 

In understanding, the mind thinks a thing ex- 
ternally. In conception, the mind thinks the thing 
as to its genetic principle. 

"The conceptive act of mind is creativity. . . . Conception 
is the germinal idea which divides within itself, expands and clothes 
itself with the details of its existence." 

To grasp the conception of a poem is to see the 
poem creating itself through the mind's own pro- 
ductive energy. The organic elements of con- 
ception are the universal, the particular and the 
individual. 

The generic usually expresses a physical process, 
the universal, a m^ental process. The 

Universal 

universal has been defined as absolute 
identity — that which cancels all difference and other- 
ness. When the universal passes out into the world it 



200 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

does not lose its identity, but maintains itself in 
the particular. The universal is the creative prin- 
ciple formulating all existence. Conceptual think- 
ing creates things in thinking them. It generates 
the thing anew as it was originally created by the 
divine mind in nature and by the finite mind in 
man's products. 

The universal differentiates itself in the partic- 
ular. It has within itself that inherent energy 
which creates species. The natural world as well 
as the spiritual has a tendency to par- 
ticularize itself. The particular always 
returns to the universal to seek its origin. It is the 
law of both matter and mind that the particular 
returns to its universal source. If this law be 
violated, and the particular fails to be one with its 
creative energy, a conflict follows. 

The movement of both mind and nature is from 
the universal to the particular, and from the partic- 
ular to the individual. A poem has no reality 
except in individuality. However, every 
individual poem has for its generative 
process, the universal. It is at the same time a 
particular kind of poem — dramatic, lyric, comic, 
epic. It seems that the individual, particular and 
universal are not three movements of mind, but all 
form one total process. This triune process is found 
in the inorganic world, in organic life, and in God 
himself. 

Conceptual thinking utters itself in a judgment 
which is separated into subject and predicate. 



THE LAW 201 

Thought is born in the judgment which 
is made up of three factors — the think- 
ing self, two states of consciousness and the 
spiritual connection of things. The idea ink and 
the idea black cannot form a judgment except 
through the unitary and abiding self and a truth 
common to both. 

Reasoning is a process of combining two judg- 
ments through a relation of a third. Every process 
in reasoning has a major premise, a minor premise 
and a conclusion. The major premise is 
a thought form which now unifies the 
syllogism with reason itself. There is a gradual 
evolution of thinking from sense to image, image 
to thought and thought to reason. According to 
Dr. Harris there are three stages of thinking: First, 
thinking objects; second, thinking relations; third, 
thinking the self-determining principle. In think- 
ing a right angled triangle whose sides are three, 
four, and five feet, the senses first perceive the 
three lines, the understanding next demonstrates — 
''The square on the hypothenuse is equal to the 
sum of the squares of the other two sides.'' Lastly, 
reason penetrates into the inner nature of mind 
and recognizes itself as the energy that brought 
the triangle into existence. These three stages of 
thinking have three corresponding doctrines of the 
world — sense-perception is atheistic; understand- 
ing, pantheistic; reason, theistic. 

Reason is not only thought thinking thought, 
but thought recognizing itself as the creative energy 



202 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of the world. Cosmic processes are not 
mechanical but rational and spiritual. 
It is the essential nature of reason to manifest 
itself in the objective world, and in the whole move- 
ment of thought. Reason is that which ratiocinates, 
that which syllogizes, and that which forms the 
rational basis of all existence. Thought may realize 
the meaning and purpose of the chair but reason 
not only grasps the creative process of the chair, 
but thinks its own process as the thought process 
constituting the chair. Reason is the great unify- 
ing principle of the world made manifest in natural 
law, the underlying and connecting basis of human- 
ity, the organizing substratum of society, the creating 
force of the school, the connecting power in teaching, 
the unitary and abiding, causal energy in mind, 
and the fundamental basis of life. 

Intuition is an immediate grasping of the totality 
of things. It is a mediating process between per- 
ceiving and thinking and seizes the universal as 
self-determined. I may perceive the 

Intuition , . . . i • i • i • . . 

chair, image it, think it, but to intuit it, 
I put it into the rational order of the world. It is 
by means of this intuiting process that the mind 
gains an insight into the cycles of nature and life. 
By means of the bone Cuvier could create the total 
animal. The animal was created out of his own 
inner consciousness through a clear grasp of the 
totality of the species. The intuitive reason in 
gaining a knowledge of the objective world re- 
discovers man's inner life. 



THE LAW 203 

"All external knowing must be likewise an internal knowing 
for that which knows is the ego, and that which is known, in order 
to be known, must be translated into the ego. " 

The mind in its final evolution intuits justice, 
the beautiful, the good, and the true as manifesta- 
tions of the divine. The psychological process 
ends in the Divine Process, and education is made 
to harmonize with religion. Finite mind presup- 
poses an Infinite Mind, and finite thought is possible 
only upon the presupposition of Infinite Thought. 
Absolute Spirit is the ultimate reality of the world 
and is the origin and inspiration of every true 
thought, every pure emotion and every life tendency. 

This discussion of the evolution of the mind is 
based upon the psychological doctrine of Denton 
J. Snider. Since the object and subject are unified 
in thought, this text makes all psychical activity a 
phase of the thought process. The purpose of 
psychology is to teach the student to recognize in 
the objective world a spiritual principle akin to 
his own soul, and to analyze the process by which 
that objective energy may become a part of his 
mental being. 

The Law Illustrated. — The law of thinking 
is beautifully illustrated in teaching arithmetic. 
The evolution of the thinking process harmonizes 
with the development of the arithmetical 

T , 1 • 1 • i^ J 1 • 1 Arithmetic 

process, in studymg an object the mind 
first thinks quality which has been defined as the 
category of difference. Every quality or attribute 
of a thing is different from every other. In gaining 



204 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

a knowledge of an object the mind next thinks 
quantity which has been called the category of indif- 
ference. The other in quantity is similar to itself. 

The mind first thinks the quality of an object, 
as a red apple. A higher power of mental activity 
negates or thinks away quality and thinks quantity. 
To think quantity is, therefore, a double mental 
act. Quality is seized by perceptive thinking and 
quantity, by thought thinking. In the former 
process the mind is dwelling in the realm of phenome- 
non or appearance and in the latter process the mind 
seeks the noumenon or the original causal energy. 

To Think Number. — Number is not a thing; 
not a quality; not a figure; not a mental image of 
an object. Number is an abstract idea which arises 
in and through the activity of mind. Newton says: 

"Number is the abstract ratio of one quantity to another of 
the same kind." 

John Dewey defines number as always express- 
ing ratio. According to Euler: 

"Number is the ratio of one quantity to another quantity 
taken as a measure." 

Dr. William T. Harris expresses the same fact 
by saying: 

" Number trains the mind into the consciousness of the ratio idea. " 

Here are three pieces of paper; one, two and four 
inches long. The two-inch piece compared with 
the four-inch paper is one-half. The four inch is 
twice the two inch. But comparing the two-inch 



THE LAW 205 

paper with the inch piece it is twice as long. Since 
the same quantity of matter is now called one-half 
and twOf it is clearly seen that number is not quan- 
tity. It is as vividly shown that number is ratio, 
a relation. Number can be grasped by the thinking 
process of the mind only. Thinking is just that 
abstract process of seeing relations. Knowledge 
results from the establishment of relation. Number 
is a thought process consisting, however, of two 
phases; a sense element and a rational element. 

The Concrete Method. — Since the mind first 
thinks quality before thinking quantity and num- 
ber, it is absolutely necessary for the child to begin 
with the concrete object. The abacus, blocks, 
balls, and pictures are close to the child's mental 
life. Correlated with the number lessons should 
be work in drawing, language and composition. 
The motor factor in education should be used in 
number work. The child should cut out pictures 
and figures in such a manner as to form problems 
in addition and subtraction. This ''busy work'^ 
creates an interest in arithmetic and finally leads 
the child into abstract relations. 

The child's social nature should be trained by 
having a group of children to measure and to cut 
out objects of different lengths. This also develops 
the child's quantitative faculty and by comparing 
the size of objects initiates him into a complete 
understanding of the number idea. The concrete 
must be dropped just as soon as the child's mind is 
able to act upon abstract ideas. 



206 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The Grube Method. — The Grube method 
teaches the four fundamental processes of arithmetic 
together. It is based upon the concrete and 
aims to teach thoroughness. Grube proceeded 
upon the Pestalozzian principle that all knowledge 
is attained by the mind moving from the simple 
to the difficult and from the concrete to the abstract. 
This method of combining figures or digits cramps 
and mechanizes the mind and cuts off self-activity. 
It should be used only for variety sake and as an 
introduction to the Law of the Signs: 

1. + and — should be used as they come. 

2. X and -r- should also be used as they come. 

3. ± , X or 4- multiply or divide before adding or subtracting. 

The Heuristic Method. — This method develops 
the child's mental, motor, and social natures. It 
is the method of finding out, inventing, inspecting 
and experimenting. The table for dry measure is 
easily learned experimentally. Two pints of sand 
fill a quart measure. Eight quarts, a peck, and 
four pecks a bushel. The quantities are compared 
and the numbers clearly elucidated. It becomes 
a part of the child's life through his own self activity. 
The foot, yard, rod and mile should be actually 
measured and compared. The rules for square and 
cube-root should also be thought out experimentally 
by means of blocks. The Pythagorean theorem should 
be proved by actual measurement. The value of 
3.1416 should be worked out in such a manner that 
it becomes an ever living principle in mensuration. 



THE LAW 207 

The Speer Method. — The fundamental prin- 
ciple of this method harmonizes with the universal 
law of human thinking. By comparing quantities 
the pupil is led to form judgments of relative 
magnitude. 

"Number learning is number thinking, and rational instruction 
in number must recognize the nature of the process of number 
thinking." 

Number cannot be thought then by objects 
merely, but by comparing magnitudes and ascer- 
taining relations. The child should compare the 
actual physical object to see relations, and secondly 
compare the images of objects. Before the child 
understands mathematical relations, he must be 
able to analyze, synthesize, separate and combine, 
and finally to think and to make judgments. 
The law of thinking is accurately illustrated by 
this movement of the mind in the number process 
from the concrete to the abstract. 

Since thinking is an abstract process the child 
gradually arrives at that stage of mental equipment 
in which he is able to form perfect quantitative 
judgments. In thinking or making comparisons 
some constituent unit is used. This may be an 
inch, a foot, a yard, a mile or any definite quan- 
tity. Suppose a pupil compares a foot-ruler with a 
yard-stick. By the analytico-synthetical mental 
process, the one is found to be three times the other. 
He is thus taught the idea of three as a relation and 
not as a mechanical process. The child now does 



208 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

for himself what the old method failed to do for 
him; namely, think number as an abstract relation. 
Counting now takes on a phase of mental activity. 
It is not a mere verbal naming of objects but an 
expression of the relative value of the quantity. 
Rational counting is a process of ascertaining the 
_ parts of a whole. The constituent must 

The Thing J^ . . , . 

Is Its be seen as an exact quantitative relation 

to the whole. Forty yards cannot be 
comprehended only in its relation to the constituent 
unit one yard. As the thinking process develops 
more and more, the mind frees itself from all ob- 
jective reality. The child must see the yard in so 
many concrete relations, that it finally realizes the 
yard as a relation. The mind must be gradually 
free from the particular and to think number as 
an abstract relation. This process should never 
be mechanical, memoriter, but always that of 
insight. Number thus becomes a means of self- 
realization. It is an agent by which the child 
develops its own self-activity. To learn number 
is to follow the law of thinking: 

1. Sense experience and indefinite quantitative relations. 

2. Exact relations of physical objects. 

3. Seeing quantitative relations as images. 

4. Freeing the relations from the particular and mastering 
quantitative thinking. 

5. To think conditions and relations and to apply them to 
mathematical processes of thought. 

The following quotations emphasize this method 
of number and show its relation to human thinking: 



THE LAW 209 

"Thought consists in the estabHshment of relations. There can 
be no relation established, and, therefore, no thought framed 
when one of the related terms is absent from consciousness." 

Herbert Spencer. 
"Thinking is discerning relations." 

Dr. McCosh. 
"The thing is its relations." 

G. H. Lewis. 
"Consciousness implies the recognition of hkenesses and 
differences." 

John Fiske. 
"The primary element of all thought is a judgment which arises 
from comparison." 

Francis Bowen. 
"All knowledge results from the establishment of relations be- 
tween phenomena. " 

J. B. Stallo, 
"We must practice in thinking, the constant object of all 
teaching." 

Charles W. Eliot. 



14 



XIV. 

'lino DI'IVMLOI'MKNT 

Til 10 iiiiiid ^'irovvs Uir(>u^:;li ccrljiin irrnriJincni 
|)iiii('i|)l<'.s .'uid rchiljoiis which uikIciTk^ cxpcricrK^c 
jmd which c.ouMtirul.c the very (*HH(^n(5e of piirc" 
Uiouf^ht itself. These uhidiii}.^ forin.s of thoii;i;ht lie 
nt tli(^ fouii(hitioii of ull human kn()wh'(l<i;(^ by ('oii- 
(litioiiin^J!; the tliiidviii^ und kiiowin^^ process. The 
thouj^ht process which conceives the oi(h'r of luitnre 
is oiM' ill source .-md nie.nninj'; with the order itself. 
If object relations were not thoii^-;!!!, rt-lations atid 
there weri" no ('(nninon element between l\\r. two, 
then there would be no l;nowIe<|^e possible of l-lie 
('on.iitHM.H tliini-;. in onler for knowledge to be 
()f(}.Mwti. ,„,.ssil)le niid the mind to develop there 
must Ih' :i.n nclivity '>f niind related to jin inherent 
activity in the connected order of thin^';s. in think- 
iii'*; :uid knowin;-; we reco«.^ni/e relations whicii 
imd<'iTw* mental life and which translal,e experiences 
int<> intelli^ibhs forms. In terms of the syllogism, 
the real is a, relation; a relation is a form of con- 
sciousness; therefore, reality is rationality. The 
facts of experience are related and form a bond of 
union in and lhrou<';li a spiritual |)rin(*iple which 
knits things together, and knits mind and lhin«i;s 
tof^ether in the thinkiii<^ (){ them. The fundamental 
principle whi(di enables us to think the world, is 
identical to thai, wiiich conditions the world. 
210 



Tiii<: I)I':vp:l()pi\1!':n'1' 2n 

Th(i liiinh'in inind in tlilukiiif^ docs not cn^aie 
o])]v.('X\vv. cxi.sicrK^c, ycri nothing (exists for the, lliink- 
iii^.'; inind wliic-li (%'innol (^iiU^r Uiou^hl or Ixm-oiik^ 
ji Uiinkahh! n^nJiiy. If fact, inind is po.ssihh^ only 
in unity with hidden rclationH out of wlii(di it ^rows 
and in wliicdi il, exists. It has bec^n well said that — 

" Nal,iir<! iH II HyHlx'.in of i(',l;il<;<l ;i[>jMtJir:in<;(!H :iu<\ n;l;il,(!(l apixiur- 
:iii('(;h iiHi imi)()HHil)lri :ij)ur<, froiri (,lui nvMow of \n\A:\\\^i-An:('.." 

It is a self-(;vident trutli thai, t,h(; onler woild^ 
as known and knowahlc, is a sysU^ni of ohjeets 
r(;lat(Ml to a Uiinkinf^ mind and rehired lo eaeJi 
oilier through thrtir r(;lation io mind. An i{<.i;,ti..i>ai 
object exists only in reflation to a subj<;ct A.uvity 

and when this rf^lationship is want/ing, tin; obj<!(;t 
for thoufj;ht is wanting. TIk^ abiding S(tlf is th(^ 
combining princ/iple of buman and phcjiomcmal 
cxiHt(;nc(; whicdi weaves tin; world int,o thinkabhi 
forms. The mind in thinking searcluts for unity 
amid variety, for a fiindamentnJ princi|)l<; embra- 
cing dirfer(;nc(; jind reconciling opposing (dements^ 
and finally for the n^al unity of thought, th(; [)hilo- 
so[)hi(; insight, and that rational knowle(lg(t wlii(di 
is n(;C(*Hsary i,o i(;veal tin; true nature; of the world 
wit-hout- and the woi'ld within. 

A thinking being r(;aliz(;s hims(;lf in tfiat which 
lies outsider of himself by sharing in th(; lif(; and the 
thought of t,he litc^rary, se,ient,ific, social and ral,ion;iI 
world which are m(;ans in attaining his true; worth. 
Th(i cosmic uniti(!S calhul laws of nature which the 
mind grasps in all scientiiic rewearch, arc coherent 



212 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

System of relatioRS not foreign to mind but intrin- 
Reiations sically mcntal in their nature. If mind be 
intimately connected with nature, if the student be 
rationally related to the facts of science, he is still 
more closely identified with human constructions 
and mechanisms. The relations in the violin and 
piano constitute their inner essence and are the 
product of the formative mind. The design of these 
musical instruments is the creative principle organ- 
izing the material into relations necessary for the 
production of musical sound. 

It is generally thought that the reaper is made 
out of parts rather than the parts made from the 
reaper. The reaper is constructed of wheels, sickle, 
reel, canvas, chains, bolts, etc., but the fact is, 
these parts are built out of the idea — reaper. The 
universal creates the particular, the ideal brings 
into existence the real and what is now a machine 
was originally a pulsating thought. The truth is, 
the parts of the reaper are relations and 
the reaper itself is a system of relations. 
The sickle is found in the reaper and the reaper 
exists in the sickle. Relationship makes both 
reaper and sickle; the reaper makes the sickle as 
certainly as the sickle makes the reaper. In making 
a close study of the reaper we conclude that the 
canvas, sickle, reel, chains, bolts, etc., have no 
reality except in activity. It is through activity 
that these parts fulfill their purpose ; activity means 
relationship. The sickle realizes its purpose only 
through activity, and its activity is possible only 



THE DEVELOPMENT 213 

in relation to the other parts of the machine. The 
relating activity which binds the parts into an 
organic unity is a thinking, creating mind. That 
which brings the machine into existence is a spiritual 
principle and to think the reaper is to think the 
mind externalized in the material and to ascertain 
the thought constituting its system of relations. 

The Imnianent Principles of Knowing. — The peda- 
gogical problem is to determine the immanent prin- 
ciples of knowing and mind growth, and to trace out 
the underlying conditions of human knowledge. It 
is necessary to discuss the universal types of know- 
ing and thinking which form the structure of in- 
teUigence. Samuel Taylor Coleridge classifies these 
types into three dual divisions, i.e., subject and at- 
tribute, whole and part, cause and effect. From each 
division there arise certain subordinate principles 
which are also necessary to articulate experience. 

In thinking a thing the mind splits it into sub- 
stantive and adjective, or into existence and the 
property modifying it. The primary properties of 
a thing are those essential to its existence; exten- 
sion and resistance; the secondary qualities are 
those given by the senses. In order to illustrate 
the relation of quahty and object we analyze sugar 
into sweetness, whiteness and hardness, object and 
These isolated attributes are our own Quality 

points of view but the reality of sugar is found in 
their unity. Furthermore these qualities do not 
exist except in relation to each other; relation pre- 
supposes quality and quality is nothing apart from 



214 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

relation. To get the truth of sugar its existence must 
be qualified ideally, as sweet, white, hard. Sugar 
has existence and content and the adjectives imply 
a separation of meaning from being. According to 
Anaxagoras a quality is an idea "cut off with a 
hatchet" from its reality. The sugar is known 
only through its qualities and its qualities are known 
only through the sugar. 

In harmony with the thought of the poet-phi- 
losopher, quality and quantity and likeness and 
diff(u-ence are derived from substance and attribute. 
In thinking, quantity logically follows 
(piality and the pupil passes from a 
study of the adjective to a study of number and 
mathematical science in general. In explaining the 
relation between quality and quantity Dr. Borden 
P. Bowne writes: 

"Qiiiintity refers to an order of likeness and difference within 
qualitative likeness, and the changes within qualitative constancy 
are quantitative." 

Apples and wheat being qualitatively unlike can 
have no quantitative value. This fundamental 
principle of thinking is necessary to the pupil in 
number work and runs through the whole science 
of mathematics. Quantity may be considered 
from two angles of view; namely, continuous and 
discrete. The United States, E Pluribus Unutn, is 
an example of continuous quantity, and a bushel of 
apples, discrete quantity. In the former, emphasis 
is put upon the connecting bond of the parts and 



THE DEVELOPMENT 215 

in the latter, upon the isolated conditions of things. 
Number exists neither in quantity nor objects but 
is wholly relational in natun^ Tlui mind (establishes 
the constituent unit and Uw. nuuHjrical relations 
are ascertained by a proccess of comparison. An 
exhaustive analysis of nund)er would include a 
study of the diffenmt systems of notation and the 
transposition of i]u\ scahe, as the dcecimal to the 
binary and the octary to the duod(M'/imal. 

Growing out of a study of an object and its 
attributes are two necessary modes of thinking — 
likeness and difference. These molds of conscious- 
n(;ss are the (essential factors in human uncherstand- 
ing and take into consideration discrimination and 
comparison. As noting lik(;n(ess(es and differences 
is i)urely a thought proc(ess, i)U[)ils should ]h) thor- 
oughly drilled in this particular movement of the 
mind. In arithmetic they should see the likeness 
and difference between a triangle and rectangle, 
cone and cylinder, prism and pyramid, cube 
and parall(ilopip(5d()n, (etc. In g(M)graphy th(iy 
should be drilled in discerning the likeness ukonms an.i 
and difference b(;tween an isthmus and a '^'""•""••" 
strait, a (hesert and a plain, and should compare 
the outlin(?s, products and peophes of diffenait 
countries and should study geographical facts in 
general from the standpoint of comparison. The 
teacher in [)hysiology should insist that pupils 
understand the likeness and difference of veins and 
arteries, inspiration and expiration, secretion anrl 
excretion, etc. Grammar should also be taught in 



216 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

accordance with these immanent principles by not- 
ing the likeness and difference between the different 
kinds of sentences, the different parts of speech and 
figures of speech, etc. History should be taught by 
comparing great men, great events, great periods, etc. 
The second coordinate group of immanent prin- 
ciples in thinking is whole and part. The mind in 
thinking a thing grasps the object as an individual 
Whole whole, analyzes it into its constituent 

And Part attributes and parts, and finally reorgan- 
izes these elements into the original whole. Attri- 
butes are inclusive, parts are exclusive; the former 
are inherent in the thing, the latter are the com- 
ponent elements making up the thing. Some 
fundamental principle of division should be deter- 
mined upon before a thing is thought into parts. 
After the basis is established the parts should be 
thought in order completely. The Bird of Paradise 
has a partitive as well as an attributive existence. 
The bird may be thought anatomically into head, 
trunk and extremities, or physiologically into the 
functions necessary to its existence. Pupils should 
be drilled in analyzing wholes into parts and in 
synthesizing parts into wholes. This is an essential 
form of thought and enters largely into all school 
studies. Closely connected with whole and part is 
One and auothcr dual type of thought — one and 
^^"^ many. This dualism of thought would 

ask the questions — Is the school one or many? 
Is the world one or many? These are pertinent, 
pedagogical questions and lead the student into a 



THE DEVELOPMENT 217 

discussion of monism and pluralism from both the 
educational and world standpoint. 

The highest dual form of thought is cause and 
effect which explains the antecedent condition of 
things. There are certain invariable sequences of 
phenomenal and educational facts that cause and 
depend upon a primal principle for their ^^^^'^ 

existence. There are two kinds of causes known in 
human thinking — efficient causes and final causes. 
Final cause sets forth the end or aim of an action. 
Efficient cause brings about certain changes which 
realize an end. In a grain of corn there is a causal 
energy which purposes an ideal corn-stalk. The 
soil, moisture, sunlight and air constitute the effi- 
cient cause which has the power of converting the 
original force into a perfect plant. In the domain 
of human activity final cause governs efficient 
cause. The final cause of the Panama Canal origi- 
nated in the fertile minds of our great statesmen. 
The efficient is seen in the agencies, pick, machinery, 
laborers and money which have the power of 
accomplishing the final purpose. Dr. William T. 
Harris writes: 

"We notice two important steps in self -activity; the first, the 
formation of an ideal or purpose, and the second, the transformation 
of the real into the ideal." 

The reign of law has had a tendency to destroy 
the reign of purpose. Causal energy establishes a 
uniformity in nature called natural law. Things 
exist through mechanical and evolutionary forces 



218 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

or through purposive processes. The educational 
world is purely purposive while the physical world 
is purposive and developmental. To think the 
purpose of the school or the world is to gain a knowl- 
edge of their hidden power or origin. To think the 
purpose of a hat is to become conscious of the 
reason for its existence. The hat is the objectifica- 
tion of the self and is not wholly material nor 

Purpose wholly thought, but a concrete unity of 
And Means ^^^ ^^^^ rp^ ^^^^^ ^j^^ j^^^ ^^ ^ material 

thing accords with the first phase in the develop- 
ment of thought, but to study the hat as a thought 
process is to enter the second stage of mental growth. 
The highest stage of thought activity takes cogni- 
zance of the duality in unity and attains the true 
knowledge of the object. It is a valuable exercise 
to trace out the thought found in manufactured 
and natural objects. The evolution of the hat 
process may be traced out in the following manner. 
Some one conceived that a covering for the head 
would be beneficial in protecting it from heat and 
cold. This individual thought out a condition in 
which the head could not be exposed. He con- 
trasted the real condition with the ideal and lastly, 
created the thought of the hat which takes on 
external form. The spiritual hat and the material 
hat form a concrete unity called *^hat. " To study 
the eye as an organ of sight is to retrace purpose in 
the Infinite Mind. This is a more difficult process 
and the thinker must choose for himself the evolu- 
tionary or the teleological doctrine of the world. 



THE DEVELOPMENT 219 

It is impossible to think a thing without think- 
ing it as fixed or changing. The house must be 
thought as it now exists or in the process of be- 
coming through a causal energy and a Fixed and 
material means. Old Ironsides may be changing 
thought, as she now lies in Boston harbor or she 
may be thought in the process of construction in 
1795. To think a thing as fixed is description; 
to think a thing as changing is narration. We 
describe Old Ironsides as she now is and narrate the 
process of her construction. Again, every individual 
is derived from a universal, and every universal 
is housed in an individual. The table is derived 
from some universal idea or conception 

, .,.., ,. , Individual 

of table, if the mdividual is destroyed And 

the universal may create others indefi- 
nitely. If the universal ceases to be then there is 
no individual. We gain a knowledge of the individ- 
ual through sense perception, but the universal is 
known only through thought or reason. The 
individual that is first perceived is finally grasped 
with the universal in it. The mind passes from 
the individual to the universal and from the uni- 
versal back to the individual. 

The when and the where are rooted in the very 
nature of thought and knowledge, and are indispen- 
sable types of mental activity in all processes of 
knowing. Nothing can exist except in Time 

time and place, and nothing can be ^""^ ^^^^'^ 
thought except at some time and at some place. 
These two forms of consciousness lie at the founda- 



220 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

tion of all biography and history, and are the 
essential questions of inquiry in geology and other 
sciences. These patterns of thought are used daily 
and unconsciously in all school work, and their 
value is not appreciated and understood by the 
ordinary thinker. 

In the development of the educational process, 
subject and object are twain — yet resolvable into 
each other. Unless a poem can be resolved into 
mind terms it cannot be learned and has no value 
in the education of the individual. Knowledge is 
possible only in the unification of the mind with 
Subject ^l^c thing the mind thinks. All thought 

And Object j^qvcs bctwcen subject and object which 
are essentially distinct from each other yet in their 
unity lies all knowledge. No thinking is possible 
without an idea and an idea implies that there has 
been a separation made between the object and its 
meaning. A judgment adds an adjective to an 
object and qualifies it ideally. . In thinking we 
arrive at the nature of the object and find it to 
exist, in the last analysis, in a thought process. 

Every appearance involves a reality and every 
phenomenon, a noumenon or thing-in-itself. If this 

dualism is denied then one element resolves 
AndleauTy itsclf iuto the othcr. The appearance 

of a work of art belongs to its reality, and 
its reality is grasped, not sensuously, but through 
processes of thought. Nature is the appearance or 
manifestation of the Absolute which Spencer says 
is unknowable, but which Tennyson says is attained 



THE DEVELOPMENT 221 

not by reason but by faith. The objective school is 
the appearance, but its reality lies beneath the phe- 
nomenal existence in a spiritual unity. The mechan- 
ical means used in teaching represents its phenomenal 
side while soul unity is the real teaching itself. 

Activity is a process of self-realization and is the 
power which transforms the real into the ideal. When 
the is is changed to the ought-to-he the indi- i^eai 

vidual has acquired a fresh adjective and a "^"^ ^'^®^* 
new increment of life. It is through activity that the 
pupil attains the consciousness of his own freedom. 

Washin^on Monument. — To make a summary 
of these immanent principles of knowing, a brief 
study is made of the Washington Monument. The 
student first thinks it as an object of admiration 
possessing adamantine qualities. The quantity of 
material used in its construction was donated by 
the States and different nations of the world. It 
is 555 feet high and is the tallest shaft in the United 
States. It may be compared to Bunker Hill Monu- 
ment; there is a likeness in structure and purpose, 
but a difference in size and commemoration. In 
thinking the Monument the mind first grasps it as 
a wJiole and then analyzes it into its constituent 
j)arts. The many stones are synthesized into one 
shaft and are transformed into knowledge and 
patriotism. The spirit of American patriotism is 
its final cause, whereas, the rock and other material 
constitute its efficient cause. The means used in the 
construction of this Monument are insignificant 
compared with the purpose which it commemorates. 



222 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The Monument may be thought as fixed or as 
changing; changing from its ideal to its realization, 
or fixed definitely near the Potomac River. Scien- 
tists tell us that its inclination varies with the 
seasons. The universal Monument conceived in the 
minds of the American people is housed in an 
individual structure which perpetuates the memory 
of George Washington. Washington City is natu- 
rally the most desirable place for its location. The 
elements of time considered in a study of the Monu- 
ment are the laying of the corner-stone by President 
Polk, July 4, 1848, the placing of the capstone 
December 6, 1884, and the dedication February 21, 
1885. The Monument is an object of inspiration 
and patriotic knowledge to every thinking subject 
struggling to realize liberty and freedom. Its 
appearance, although grand and sublime, cannot be 
compared in importance with its ultimate reality. 
The Monument in its solemn stateliness is a national 
incentive in transforming the real American into 
an ideal citizen. To make an exhaustive study of 
these fundamental principles of knowing is to 
attain a complete knowledge of the Monument. 

The individual finally finds himself reflected in 
the Monument and transforms it into a type of his 
own lif(^ As Goethe puts it, the thinker uses the 
^.Hihetic individual to set forth some universal 
Freedmu ^^.^^^i, Hc sccs back of thc material 
thing a spiritual law which is a reflection of his 
better self. He finds himself in the Monument and 
translates the Monument into himself. He is now 



THE DEVELOPMENT 223 

on the borderland between the ideal and the real 
and at last translates himself into higher and nobler 
life. Such a study of an object stirs up the pupil's 
emotional nature and arouses within him a feeling 
of effort to grow in thought and hfe. His total 
life is made to feel the pulse-beat of the world and he 
is inspired with all that is true, beautiful and good. 

To Think the Class. — An individual object 
cannot be thought without seeing it in relation to 
a class. The class is ascertained from the world 
of reality by observation, comparison, contrast, 
abstraction and generalization. Classification is 
an important element in mind development, for 
we are able to master nature only by content 
binding it into classes. The content of ^"'^ Extent 
a class is the sum of the attributes found in the 
individual composing it. The extent of a class is 
the number of individuals found in the content. 
It is impossible to think the content of a class 
without thinking the extent. Content and extent 
are dynamical relations. The greater the content 
the less the extent, and vice versa. A good, mellow, 
red apple has greater content, but less extent than 
a red apple. There is an exact qualitative and 
quantitative relationship existing between content 
and extent. To think the qualitative is definition; 
to think the quantitative is division. One is conno- 
tation, the other, denotation; one, intension, the 
other, extension. 

Principle of Definition. — The process of denot- 
ing the common qualities belonging to a class 



224 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

is definition. Every definition has a major genus 
and differentia. In the definition — A triangle is a 
polygon of three sides, '* polygon" is the major 
genus, and ''of three sides," the differentia. Every 
logical definition unfolds the essence of a notion 
by using a universal and particular term. It is a 
process of thought by which the mind unifies the 
individual and universal. It should be adequate, 
affirmative, perspicuous and not tautological.. 
Jevon gives the following rules: 

1. A definition should state the essential attribute of the species 
defined. 

2. A definition must not contain the name defined. 

3. The definition must be exactly equivalent to 
Rules of ,1 • J £■ J 

Definition ^he species defined. 

4. A definition must not be expressed in obscure, 

figurative or ambiguous language. 

5. A definition must not be negative where it can be affirmative. 

Principle of Division. — To think the quan- 
titative, the extent of a class, is division. It is a 
process of thinking unity into diversity. The 
mind cannot think extent without thinking content. 
As the principle of division is so important in 
teaching, in outlining subjects, and in classifying 
facts, the following rules from Minto are given: 

1. Every division is made on the ground of difference in some 
attribute common to all the members of the whole to be divided. 

2. In a perfect division the subdivisions or species are mutually 
Rules of exclusive. 

Division 3 -phe classes in any scheme of division should be 

of coordinate rank. 

4. The basis of division should be an attribute admitting of 
important differences. 



THE DEVELOPMENT 225 

To strengthen the mind in this form of thought, 
the pupil should be drilled in making outlines and 
systematic subdivisions of an object. An outline 
is the arrangement of notes in logical 
order. It is valuable in making studies 
systematic, in cultivating the power of classifica- 
tion, in creating interest, and in aiding in original 
investigation. 

PRINCIPLES IN OUTLINING. 

1. No heading without a coordinate topic. 

2. Coordinates must be placed in a vertical column. 

3. Subordinates are placed underneath and to the right. 

4. Themes are not indexed. 

The different methods of outlining are the brace, 
position, letter, tabular, numerical, composite and 
exponential. The following is an example of the 
exponential system of outlining: 

FOOD. 22. By the gastric juice and 

1^ Starch. pepsin. 

1^. Changed in the mouth. 3^. Into albumenose. 

2^. By the saliva. 4^. Absorbed in the stomach. 

3^. Into grape sugar. 3^ Fats. 

4^ Absorbed in the mouth V. Changed in the duodenum, 

and along the alimentary 2^ By the pancreatic juice 

canal. and bile. 

2^ Albumen. 3^. Into an emulsion of fats. 

l^. Changed in the stomach. 4^. Absorbed in the intestines. 

The pupil should study by outlining rather than 
by an outline. We are told that science is knowledge 
properly classified. Outlining assists the pupil to 
see relations in subject-matter. It assists the mind 

15 



226 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

in so classifying the facts of a subject as to make 
it more easily learned. The logical order of the 
subject should be made to fit to the psychological 
order of the growing mind. Outlining is a process 
of adjusting subject-matter to mind. The thought 
in the thing is made to correspond to the law in 
the mind. 

The Logical Syllogism. — There is nothing that 
will assist the thinking mind in its growth and 
development more than a study and application of 
the logical syllogism. The syllogism is a movement 
of the mind from the individual through the par- 
ticular to the universal, or from the particular 
through the individual to the universal, or lastly, 
from the individual through universal to the par- 
ticular. The first movement is called deduction, 
the second, induction, the third, identification. 

Deduction. Therefore, Edison is an in- 
All inventors labor diligently, ventor. 
Edison is an inventor, Enthymeme. 
Therefore, Edison labors dili- All inventors labor diligently, 
gently. Therefore, Edison labors dili- 

Induction. gently. 

Edison is an inventor. Sorites. 

Edison labors diligently, Hoosiers are Americans, 

Therefore, all inventors labor Americans are men, 

diligently. Men are rational animals, 

Identification. Rational animals have minds, 

An inventor labors diligently, Therefore, Hoosiers have 

Edison labors diligently, minds. 

The syllogism consists of a major premise, a 
minor premise and conclusion. The syllogisms are 
organically related. The three movements of the 



THE DEVELOPMENT 227 

mind are interrelated processes. Each 
syllogism depends upon, and is related to 
the other two. An enthymeme is a syllogism with 
one premise unexpressed. The common sorites 
consists of a number of syllogisms so combined that 
the predicate of the first premise becomes the sub- 
ject of the next until finally the predicate of the last 
is predicated of the subject of the first. 

The Syllogism in Thinking. — The mind first 
recognizes an object by the second figure of the 
syllogism (S is M, P is M, therefore, S is P). This 
is an act of apperception which takes place through 
some common mark that belongs to both the ob- 
ject and the class. As soon as an object is recog- 
nized by one of its marks, sense-perception uses 
the first figure of the syllogism (M is P, S is M, 
therefore, S is P) to reinforce the first Figures of 
act of the mind and to look for other ^Syiiogism 
marks which previous experience declares to belong 
to the object. In this figure of the syllogism the 
individual enlarges his experience through the 
stored-up knowledge of the race. By means of the 
third figure of the syllogism (M is P, M is S, therefore, 
S is P) the mind grasps classes, species, genera, and 
universals. This form of the syllogism gives definition 
because it unites the universal with the individual. 

Hegel defines the syllogism as the unity 
of the judgment and the notion. He 
shows that every form of life is a syllogistic proc- 
ess. His universal is the creative energy found 
in species. We do not construct a syllogism, it 



228 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

really constructs us. It traces out the process of the 
Absolute as manifested in the world. The world 
is a manifestation of the universal by means of the 
particular in the form of a concrete individual. 
It is the nature of thought to bind these three ideas 
into one syllogistic process. Thought or reason 
has an inherent tendency to express itself in the 
form of a syllogism. The underlying process of 
both nature and mind is a syllogism. 

The Development Illustrated. — The development 
of the thinking process may be illustrated by 
a study of method in geography. Geography is a 
study of the earth in relation to man. 
A study of the earth may be geology, 
mineralogy, paleontology, chemistry or astronomy. 
A study of man may be biology, physiology, biog- 
raphy, history, ethnology or anthropology. The 
earth studied in relation to man is geography. 
To study corn, wheat and cotton is botany. To 
study these in relation to man is geography. To 
study a fact in geography is necessarily a dual act. 
It must be thought per se and in relationship with 
man. The geographical is not geological, meteoro- 
logical, zoological, botanical, historical, political, 
but a study of all these facts in relation to man's 
life, development and higher existence. 

Geography is divided into — 

Academically Speaking, Professionally Speaking. 

1. Home Geography. 1. Observational Geography. 

2. Elementary Geography. 2, Representative Geography. 

3. Physical Geography. 3. Descriptive Geography. 

4. Physiography. 4. Rational Geography. 



THE DEVELOPMENT 229 

The academic division is based upon natural 
relationships. The professional classification is 
based entirely upon mind processes. The teacher 
must understand the logic of the subject and the 
psychology of the mind; world relations and mind 
relations. 

Observational Geography. — The Committee of 
Ten says the purpose of observational geography 
is — a. To develop the power and habit of geograph- 
ical observation; b, to give the pupil true and 
vivid basal ideas; c, to arouse a spirit of inquiry 
and a thirst for geographical knowledge. 

Pupils should be taken into the woods and fields 
and led to observe hills, valleys, rivers and agencies 
producing changes, such as floods, winds and rains. 
Children should also have an opportunity to study 
humanistic geography such as docks, steamboats, 
railroads, interurban traction lines, etc. By obser- 
vation and experimentation pupils may notice the 
daily rotation of the earth on its axis 
(Foucault Experiment) and the change r^,^ co^^ptlon 
of the sun during the different seasons. 
Pupils should be taught to notice the changing of 
the stars, the Pleiades, the Dipper, Jupiter, Venus, 
Orion, etc., and to note the phases of the moon. 

Encourage each pupil on a geographical excursion 
to bring in some product of nature and to study 
its geographical significance. Geography should 
be a natural outgrowth from nature study which 
is the child's first outlook on his natural environ- 
ments. It is a transition from the perception of the 



230 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

real to tho conception of the ideal. It is a process 
of thought thinking thought as nianifcisted in the 
outc^r world. Th(;r(5 ar(^ just two factors in thinking 
geography, tlui world without and the world within. 
It is a profu'ss of translating the thought of the 
Infinite Mind into the thought of the finite mind. 

Representative Geography. — After impression 
comes expression; after observation, artistic repre- 
sentation in the form of models, maps, sketches, 
charts, etc. An impn^ssion becomes a fixed product 
through expn^ssion. The imi)ression is made more 
vivid and clear through representation. The child 
is now induced into the inner life of a map and to 
think its creative energy. He makes a realistic 
sketch of what he saw in observational geography. 
Th(5 first effort at map drawing should be topo- 
gra[)hi('al and frcx^-hand. The form of land in three 
dimensions brings into use the moulding board. 
Maps should finally be drawn to an exact scale. 
This work bridges the chasm between geography 
and surveying and civil engineering. 

Descriptive Geography. — The pupil is now 
directed to a study of tlu^ observations and repre- 
sentations of oth(;rs. No student can observe all 
the surface of the (^arth and hence must study the 
maps and representations of expert geographers 
who have made a life study of the geographical 
process. 

Descriptive geography gradually merges into 
narrative geography. The fundamental geogra])h- 
ical process is change. The expert geographer looks 



THE DEVELOPMENT 231 

into these processes of nature and notices changes 
and cycles of activity. The essential process in 
geography is evolution, a becoming, a change, a 
cycle, a return-to-itself, a force and energy which 
is constantly struggling for a more perfect cosmic 
realization. 

Rational Geography. — The movement of mind 
in geography is observation, representation, de- 
scription, and rationalization. At this stage of 
geographical thinking cause and effect relations 
should be carefully studied. The student is now 
prepared to investigate Laplace's Nebular Hypoth- 
esis. It would also be interesting to look into the 
various i)hilosophical theories of the origin of the 
world, as water, fire, air, and the unlimited. Ra- 
tional geography is analytic, and seeks to explain 
the classification of geographical facts and the 
causes of geographical phenomena. 

The thinking process is developed by the mind 
coming into contact with the objective world as 
manifested in geography. Geography develops per- 
ceptive thinking, memory thinking, imaginative 
thinking, and lastly, thought thinking. Rational 
geography is a study of the thought processes as 
embodied in nature and interacting upon man. 
It investigates the thought in the thing and attempts 
to adjust it to the growing mind. The fact in the 
thing may be a volcano with its crater, lava, cinders, 
gases, cause, number, classification and location. 
This method in the subject is to be adjusted and 
harmonized with the method in the mind. 



232 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Thinking Developed in Physiology. — While the 
thinking process may be developed in studying 
any subject, it is especially interesting to trace the 
growth of thought power in learning and teaching 
anatomy, physiology and hygiene. To study and 
Human think the human body is to discover the 
Body inner force of the human constitution. 

The ultimate objective categories, force, cause, law, 
etc., are made subjective forms of thought. The 
mind grasps a knowledge of anatomy by coming in 
contact with the thought found in the human body. 
The thought in the organism is a common term to 
the thought in the mind, and hence is thinkable, 
knowable, because there is something objective to 
which the mind can unify itself. The true scientist 
must be psychological and see in all objective reality 
a thought process. The final purpose in science is to 
trace out the Absolute Idea which is not only the 
origin of all human beings, but of all facts, prin- 
ciples, forces, causes and laws of existence in general. 
The Science of Otology. — To understand how 
the mind grows and develops in studying the science 
of physiology, an intense study is made of the 
human ear. Applying the categories of thought, 
the ear is divided into pinna, tympanum 
and labyrinth. The parts of the pinna 
are helix, antihelix, tragus, antitragus, concha and 
lobus. The tympanum is divided into the ossicles, 
(malleus, incus, stapes, orbiculare), membrani tym- 
pani, openings, and muscles. The labyrinth is 
analyzed into vestibule, otoliths, semicircular canals 



THE DEVELOPMENT 233 

(perilymph, endolymph), cochlea (fenestra rotunda 
and fenestra ovalis, modiolis and organs of Corti) 
and the auditory nerve (cochlear and vestibular 
branches). The first movement of thought reveals 
parts and the second mental movement interprets 
attributes. 

The thought-relations constituting the ear also 
include a study of its form, size, color, resistance, 
protection, cause and effect, time and place, like- 
ness and difference, and purpose or function. The 
function of hearing has its purpose deeply rooted 
in human life. It is impossible to think function 
without first thinking the thing to functionate, 
and hence a study of anatomy should precede a 
study of physiology. A knowledge of hygiene is 
necessary to understand how the parts function in 
a healthy condition. 

The function of the pinna is to convey sound by 
conduction and convection to the auditory canal. 
There is also an added meaning or thought in the 
ridges and furrows of the external ear. Design 

The design is to give greater exposed in Nature 
surface and to receive more accurately the vibra- 
tions from various directions. The thought of the 
auditory canal is to give greater intensity of sound 
and to afford protection to the membrani tympani. 
This membrane receives the vibrations and trans- 
mits them to the auditory nerve by means of the 
chain of bones. A further design is seen in the 
function of the Eustachian tube which equalizes 
the atmospheric pressure on both sides of the 



234 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

membrani tympani. The purpose of the internal 
ear can be understood only by a careful study of 
means to ends. It is thought that the cochlea 
determines the pitch and the semicircular canals 
the direction from which sound comes. 

A close study of the mechanism and function 
of the ear reveals the fact that it is a delicate ap- 
paratus to aid the individual in securing spiritual 
freedom. Every part, every attribute, 
every function is rooted in a divine pur- 
pose which controls and works out the design of 
the whole organism. The telcological view sup- 
plemented by the developmental hypothesis is the 
true explanation of anatomical parts and physio- 
logical processes. 

Hygiene should as logically follow physiology as 
physiology should be based upon anatomy. To 
reverse these subjects as found in some text-books 
is to contradict the laws of human think- 
ing. For the ear to fulfill the purpose of 
its existence, it must be kept in a healthy condition. 
Earache, otorrhoea, otalgia and other unnatural 
conditions of the ear tend to subvert the purpose or 
original design of the ear. Hygiene is a necessary 
study from a physical point of view, but it is doubly 
important in understanding the great purpose 
running through the whole organism. 

To think the ear is not merely to know its struc- 
ture, function and health, but to gain a clear idea 
of its design, law, purpose, which arc infinite in 
their origin. The mind in its process of develop- 



THE DEVELOPMENT 235 

ment parallels the eternal purpose of the organism 
and searches out those eternal truths coextensive 
with its origin. It is easy to understand how 
thought thinks thought in human constructed 
knowledge but to enter the workshop of nature and 
trace out and understand creative principles is a 
more difficult problem. The design of 

^ . . . ° Creation 

the ear is to assist in spiritual freedom. And 

The ultimate problem in thinking the ear 
is to gain a knowledge of the creative purpose 
of the organism and to follow this final cause through 
processes of development. Once more we are 
brought to the fundamental conclusion that the 
mind in its growth and development parallels the 
growth and development of natural objects. 

A final knowledge of the automobile is arrived 
at by ascertaining the creative idea and then tra- 
cing that thought through its various stages of 
evolution. To gain a final knowledge of the ear, 
the mind first seizes the ear idea and then traces 
this thought down through the developing human 
being until it attains its freedom in and through 
the organism studied. 

The Highest Psychological Development. — The 
highest function of the intuitive reason is to 
commune with the Divine Process. There is a 
divinity in the world which shapes our ends and 
which we must firmly grasp by a study of its outer 
manifestation in art, science, literature and prophecy. 
The true, beautiful, and good are expressions of the 
divine order of the world which must flow into our 



236 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The Divine lives if WG would realize our final destiny. 
Process rpj^^ human soul in the course of its 

development finally catches a glimpse of the Divine 
Ego. The student passes through the different 
psychological processes until he arrives at a knowl- 
edge of the universal, eternal process of the world. 
The educational process, the psychological process, 
the teaching process lead up to a knowledge of the 
Divine Process. There is a parallelism between 
education, psychology and religion and the unity 
of the world, and knowledge is proclaimed. The 
educational consciousness becomes the religious 
consciousness in and through the teaching con- 
sciousness. 



XV. 

THE DOCTRINE 

The true doctrine of thought is based upon the 
law of mind activity and upon those immanent 
mind principles underlying thought and thing. 
The movement of the mind in thinking parallels 
the content of things to be thought. Thinking is 
a spiritual activity in which the soul breathes in 
the realm of ideas. The function of the mind is 
to think, and the function of thinking is relating, 
unifying, "putting things together." To think a 
thing is to unify the thing process with the mind 
process, to transmute the content of the thing 
into the constitution of the mind and to 
realize through this interaction knowl- 
edge. This doctrine teaches that thinking is possible 
only in relation of the thinker and the thing thought, 
and to examine the thinking process is at the same 
time to examine the process of things which the 
mind thinks. In other words, ''mind and matter, 
subject and object, thought and being are related 
phases of the same underlying principle which 
unifies the two seemingly contradictory principles. 
That which ties the two together is a spiritual 
substance which at the same time is the absolute 
principle of the universe." 

The Mysterious Unity. — The unity between mind 
and what it thinks, is not mechanical, not 

237 



238 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

chemical, but organic. A mechanical unity con- 
sists in putting things together by laws externally 
imposed, as in the chair or reaper. A chemical 
unity is a merging of parts into a new whole differ- 
ing from the original, as hydrogen and oxygen 
forming water. An organic unity is a union by 
virtue of an inherent energy seeking the end for 
which the organism is created, as plants and animals. 
The purpose of the organism is to realize itself from 
within, but the purpose of the mechanism is to 
realize itself from without. An organism grows, a 
mechanism is changed. Thought is an organic 
process of mind identifying itself with the thought 
in the sentence, in the poem, and in all lessons 
studied. 

An organism, as the heart, maple, robin, cannot 
exist in and by itself, but must exist in and through 
what is other than itself. Thought cannot exist in 
and by itself but always exists in and through 
other things than itself. It is the very essence of 
thought to contain within itself a living relation 
to things. Reality without and thought within are 
opposite poles of the same thing and are at heart 
one. This same thing is the universal reason which 
pervades all thought and all things, and forms all 
existence into a rational coherent system through 
Relativity ^ commou Spiritual principle. The hu- 
of Thought j^^j^ mind and the real world must work 
together harmoniously if thought is to be identified 
with the thing. If knowledge be possible and the 
world is to reveal itself to the thinking mind there 



THE DOCTRINE 239 

must be an affinity between the mind and what it 
thinks. In thinking a thing the mind identifies 
itself with the content of reality and never with the 
thing itself which is said to be unthinkable. In 
connection with this doctrine we hear such expres- 
sions as, the external is outside of the mind and 
hence outside of knowledge; reality is richer than 
thought; knowledge is unequal to reality. 

Every thing that exists was originally a human 
or divine thought. This thought is now mani- 
fested in nature, man, art, law, ethics, education 
and religion. All being is thought to the Infinite 
Mind and may be thought to the finite mind pro- 
vided it is sufficiently developed to think it. If a 
thing cannot be thought it does not depend upon 
the nature of the object, but upon the capability 
and development of the mind. The thought which 
we find in nature is not created by the Mind 

human mind. The fundamental meaning ^^^ Nature 
of nature is discovered and ascertained to be a 
system of relations corresponding to our own 
rationality. The essence of nature is the essence of 
mind. The meaning of nature is the meaning of 
mind. It is the function of science to trace out the 
thought element in nature and organize it into 
thinkable forms. The modern thinker is now teach- 
ing that things are related to thought and thought 
is related to things. We are gradually coming to 
the belief that the universe is an organic unity con- 
stantly evolving and working out its secret poten- 
cies. If this doctrine be true, nature, mind and 



240 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

God arc ideas which belong to a unitary system of 
knowledge. 

We are taught by Prof. Royce that the world, 
whatever it is, consists of such stuff as ideas are made 
of. Matter is a mass of coherent ideas; time and 
place are ideal; the world is a universal mind. 
If this idealistic doctrine be true, then 
the mind is able to think the world, but 
if it be false, the world is unknowable and has no 
meaning to the mind. If the world be not ideal, 
then science which is a mental interpretation of 
the world has no meaning nor value. If the world be 
ideal, its essence is thinkable by some mind, and 
may be thought by any mind having sufficient 
capacity. Since this is a world of a universal mind 
and extends beyond our particular consciousness 
it cannot be fully grasped by the finite mind. 

Thought Determines Thing. — Things exist for us 
only as thought constructs them and builds them 
up in our intelligence. Thought does not create 
things per se but finds in them a rationality which 
determines what they are and makes them an ob- 
ject of knowledge. While Spencer would say the 
outer world molds the mind, Kant affirms the mind 
molds the outer world. Fichte makes knowledge 
an activity of the ego directed toward things. In 
these systems of thought there are two organic 
elements which enter into knowledge — thought and 
thing. It is impossible to think pure subject or 
pure object for thought in its real nature is a rela- 
tion of the two. It is certainly a true doctrine to 



THE DOCTRINE 241 

say that the subjective world was developed out of 
the objective world and that things are what they 
are through a thought process. It is as impossible 
for an individual to create new ideas apart from 
objectivity as to create new atoms, for ideas are 
essentially related to reality. They do not exist 
in the mind spontaneously but are the expressions 
of the real nature of things. When we examine 
closely the relation of thought to thing, of subject 
to object, we find the unity expressed by these 
correlatives absolutely indivisible. We can dis- 
tinguish subject from object, yet we are not able 
to divorce them. The thinker cut off from the 
object is unthinkable; self is possible only in 
opposition to the non-self; spirit is known only in 
contradistinction to the non-spiritual; thought and 
thing are inseparable in the knowledge process. 

Spencer makes the thing a persistence in con- 
sciousness, and we might add a persistence of 
mind in determining the thing. The thing does not 
determine mind but mind determines the persistence 
content and process of the thing. The °^^'"^ 
eyeless fish in the Mammoth Cave was not created 
by thought, yet it did not exist as a species from 
the standpoint of knowledge until interpreted by 
some human mind. The object apart from the 
mind or the mind apart from the object may con- 
stitute potential knowledge but actual knowledge 
is found only in their organic unity. The whole 
body of knowledge taught in our schools was 
determined by the mind making the thing series 

16 



242 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

harmonize with the thought series. If the outer 
world could not be made to harmonize with the 
inner world of thought, if these two series could not 
be made to coalesce, if thought and thing could not 
be unified, then knowledge is impossible. 

Thought and Thing Unified. — Thought not only 
determines the thing but before knowledge is 
possible it must unify and organize it into mind 
terms. Subject and object are made one through 
a universalizing self-consciousness which abides in 
things and thought. Thought and thing must be 
distinct yet united before knowledge is possible. 
Dr. Baillie has well said, The being of the object is 
the content of the subject, the process of the sub- 
ject is the life of the object. In reason thought and 
thing are consciously one in form and content. 
When the law of thought parallels the law of things 
the resultant is truth. All knowledge presupposes 
a union of thought and thing through a common 
principle. Thought cut off from thing is empty 
and thing cut off from thought is blind. 

Thought finally returns upon itself and thinks 

itself as the generative principle of all things. The 

deepest doctrine of the thinking process lies in the 

fact that thought which was once es- 

Thought ^ ^ 

Returning to traugcd is to bc reunited. The thinking 

Thought . , • -i. 

mind now recognizes its own process in 
the processes objective to itself. This is the para- 
disaical state of unity between the thinking mind 
and the world to be thought. The cosmic cycle 
unfolds into the spiritual cycle and the thing proc- 



THE DOCTRINE 243 

ess becomes the thought process. It is the principle 
of the human soul to struggle to attain the universal 
ideal around the charmed circle of reality. The 
idea in attaining its self-realization turns a complete 
summersault. It first existed in the divine mind, 
then descended to unconscious nature, awoke to 
self-consciousness in man, realized its meaning in 
the family, society, school and state, and finally 
through art, religion and science makes a complete 
cycle enriched and adorned. In this panoramic 
movement the mind interprets the world as a process 
constantly struggling from a vague whole through 
differentiation to a definite whole. The creative 
spiritual force running through the world gives it 
continuity, makes it thinkable, and is the source of 
all human knowledge. 

The Knowledge Process. — The fundamental proc- 
ess in education is the unification of thought and 
thing and the attainment of truth and knowledge. 

"Truth means that knowledge which embraces its object upon 
all possiljlc sides and in all of its possible relations as the complete 
expression of the eternal reason which underlies it. " 

As to the origin of knowledge empiricism insists 
that knowledge is due to experience only; rational- 
ism maintains that the source of all knowledge is 
in the mind; the critical school sets forth the doc- 
trine that the gross materials of knowledge are 
derived from the senses and the formal elements 
of knowledge have a rationalistic origin. As to 
the nature of knowledge realism lays stress upon the 
objective world while idealism emphasizes the world 



244 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of consciousness. The most conclusive 'doctrine of 
knowledge maintains that there is a spiritual prin- 
ciple in man which is one with the spiritual principle 
of the world. Knowledge has its source in the 
unification of the thinking mind with the law, order 
and rationality of the world. When the inner 
meaning of the world has been ascertained it turns 
out to be law, and law is ideal, representing not 
merely the thought in the mind but the real principle 
itself. Knowledge is the result of thinking and — 
"thinking,'^ says Emerson, ''is the hardest task in 
the world." When Sir Isaac Newton was asked 
how he made all his wonderful discoveries he 
replied, ''By thinking." Knowledge is rooted in 
the thought process and grows in proportion to the 
self-activity of the individual. 

Factors in Knowledgpl — To think is to realize 
an ideal but the mind cannot attain its self-realiza- 
tion until it hitches itself to an object. Thinking 
brings out the new birth and develops what is best 
and noblest in us. Browning says: 

"If our rcacli did not exceed our grasp, what is heaven for?" 

The tliirdving process attains ideals, makes them 
reals, and the basis for other ideals. The soul 
Soul- craves the other world, for in this other- 

Growth j^^gg j|. g(,Qi^g ^Q attain itself. Soul-growth 

is a process of uttering self, and outering self in the 
world objective to itself. The poet again asserts: 

"Unless above himself he can exalt himself, how mean a thing 
is man. " 



THE DOCTRINE 245 

To think is to r(3ach down below the surface of 
things, and to connect their ultimate reality. 

Dr. Campbell in the ''Evolution of Plants" 
indicates that the life-processes in plants and 
animals are the same. He states that the scientific 
biologist recognizes the fundamental likeness in the 
structure and the functions of plants and 

Universal 

animals. Beneath the phenomenal world 
there is ultimate unity in the noumenal world. 
It seems that every individual thing can be traced 
back to some universal truth. 

The individual Model School has as its ultimate 
reality the universal ideal of school in general. 
The idea school creates not only this individual 
school, but has the power to originate any number 
of schools. Should the Model School be Model 

blotted out of existence and the State ^''^''''^ 

Normal of which it is a part be annihilated, the 
idea school has within itself a causal energy 
which would produce other schools. The real 
school is not made of brick and mortar, but is 
born out of the idea of developing the spiritual 
nature of the child. 

The geographical world is an object of sense- 
perception. Pike's Peak is an individual object 
having form, size, location and other essential 
attributes. The ultimate idea of this mountain is 
found in the internal force and energy of the 
earth. This force or energy is found to be law, 
and law is reason, and reason is the ultimate 
reality of all things. 



246 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Every event in history grows out of some institu- 
tional idea which has for its puri)ose, the freedom 
of the race. Beneath the multiplicity of ideas in 
history ihvvv is an ultimate idea of spiritual free- 
dom. The settlement of Georgia is an individual 
fact, but its ultimate reality is the freedom of 
poverty-stricken individuals and those imprisoned 
for debt. The cotton gin is an individual event in 
history but has for its universal principle the 
amelioration of the industrial life of the nation. 
Harvard University is a noted institution of learn- 
ing, and has its origin in the universal idea of John 
Harvard who bequeathed his library for the pur- 
pose of the education and freedom of his country- 
men. Plymouth church in Brooklyn, is a renowned 
Individual institution for the promulgation of truth 
In Universal ^g g^,^ f^j.^j^ j^y Bccchcr, Abbott and 

Hillis. This small individual church has been a 
power in spreading the gospel of righteousness to 
mankind. The political idea in history has had 
such a wonderful influence in developing the 
rationality of man that a special {)aragraph is 
given to the doctrine of the evolution of govern- 
ment which parallels and harmonizes with the 
doctrine of thought itself. 

The Doctrine Illustrated in Civics. — Every in- 
dividual state, every individual nation, every 
individual government, every individual law grows 
out of a universal principle of reason. Reason is 
the substratum of all governmental processes and the 
creative energy of all civic relations. H originates 



THE DOCTRINE 247 

states, formulates nations, establishes governments, 
and creates laws. According to a statement of Hegel : 

"The state is the divine idea as it exists on earth: Law is the 
objectivity of spirit." 

Rationality is a necessary substratum of law and 
government and is externally manifested in the 
state. The world-spirit uses the state, the nation, 
the government as a means to rational freedom. 
A state is a phase of the universal spirit 
and a link in the great chain of human 
freedom, and contains a potential germ capable of 
infinite development and progress. The active 
energy of spirit transforms states, and is constantly 
changing the real nation into an ideal nation. The 
particular form of the state passes away, that the 
universal principle of thought may be realized. 
As each civic unit is annulled, there arises out of 
this destruction the consciousness of human free- 
dom. In Hegelian phrase: 

"The result of this process is then that spirit, in rendering it- 
self objective and making this its being an object of thought, on 
the one hand destroys the determinate form of its being, on the 
other hand gains a comprehension of the universal element which 
it involves, and thereby gives a new form to its inherent principle." 

The Governmental Process. — Civics is the science 
of citizenship and is a necessary form of rational 
control in the development of freedom. The 
different kinds of government, nomadic, pa- 
triarchy, theocracy, aristocracy, monarchy, and 
democracy represent various stages in the freedom 



248 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of the race. The underlying purpose in each form 
of government is to aid mankind in working out 
finally the problem of free government. The 
governmental process is shown in the republic 
developing out of the pure democrac}^ and the 
federative {E Pluribus Unum) republic growing 
out of an integral republic. There is a divine idea 
rooted deeply in the governmental process that 
manifests itself in law, order and freedom and 
develops the different forms of control. The family, 
the school, the civil district, the municipality, the 
county, the state and the nation are expressions of 
the different governmental ideas applied to various 
units of control. Each unit has a legislative, execu- 
tive and judicial process. These distinct functions 
are necessary to the government of a free people. 

The central creative principle of our national gov- 
ernment is an institutionalized thought forming the 
nation. While government has been considered a 
necessary evil, liberty and spiritual free- 
tionaiized dom cau bc secured only through some 
form of rational control. The ideal in 
government is the same as the ideal in school 
management, and that is, control should lead to 
self-government. That government is best which 
administers to the freedom of the people and which 
takes into consideration the consent of the gov- 
erned. There is a gradual evolution in our national 
government. 

The Mayflower Compact, instituted for the glory 
of God and the advancement of the Christian 



THE DOCTRINE 249 

faith, was a covenant to combine the Pilgrims 
into a civil body politic. In this compact, popular 
constitutional liberty was born. The First Written 
Constitution in the United States was based upon 
the doctrine that the right to rule is found in the 
free consent of the governed. This document pro- 
vided for equal representation from the several 
towns and the choice of a governor and council by 
a vote of the free people. The spirit of the New 
England Confederation was that the common good 
must take precedence over individual privileges. 
The different governmental functions began to 
dawn in the Albany Plan of Union which provided 
for a President and General Council. The Declara- 
tion of Rights represented a further evolution in 
the governmental process and asserted individual 
rights and liberties of the American colonists. In 
the Declaration of Independence, the colonists 
pledged their Hves, fortunes and sacred Evolution in 
honors in support of the doctrine that Government 
they are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- 
pendent states. These principles of liberty and 
freedom were embodied in the Articles of Con- 
federation. This was the prototype of the federal 
constitution and put in visible form the idea of 
civil freedom. ''In order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure tranquillity, provide 
for the common defence, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to our- 
selves and our posterity" the federal constitution 
was ordained and established. This constitution 



250 Til 10 lODlK^ATlONAL I'KOCMOSS 

is the siiprt'inc law of (lie huid jiiid is the hi«;lu'Ht 

expression of the conscioiisiiess of freedom. 

Thou}»iil ill I'ictiire Study. The docliine of 

ih()U/2;iit lujiy he further illustrated hy ji study of 

j)ietures. To picture is to put inejiuin^ into form, 

to ext(M'njdize tlu* iutiM'nal ima^e, to ^ive expression 

to the self, and to thiovv synd)ols iid,o space. The 

psychological movement in picture-malvin«!; aj)pears 

to be as follows: The child sees the picture, for 

instance, "(-an't You I'alk?" hy Holmes, 
nt>iiiu\'s . !• • • * 1 • f 

and at hi'st does not (listinjj;uish it li'om 

the real obji'ct. lie expects the picture^ to talk, 
to phiy and to haik. lie gradually dis('riminates 
between the real object and the picture, distinguish- 
ing a,j)pearance from objective reality. In teachin^!; 
drawing tlu^ |)icture becomes a i)hysical symbol for 
the expression of thought. The internal mental 
process se[)arates the ima^e from itself, proj(H5ts 
itself from its(*lf into space and finally in studying 
the pi(d4ir(* i-e-liiinks itself. JjandsecM' in 
paiid-in*!; "Saved tlii()u^';h the act.ivn,y 
of mind, creates an image which is externalizcMl 
and nuxde objective. The cliihl is attracted to this 
external form whi(di at first seems alien to himself 
but which after a careful study takes on mea,ning 
and pic^tures his ideal, true life. 

"An«i;(>l Heads" by Reynolds is an ideal concep- 
tion cr(>at(Ml by the inner activity of tin* 
spirit its(*lf. In throwin*]; thesis thou«i;hts 
out, the canvas becomes spiritualized and repre- 
sents the true nature of the innermost life of the soul. 



TffK DOCTRINE 2r,] 

This picture reveals Uut (essence of spirit and [>or- 
trays the inner unfolding soul of Reynolds. It 
not only shows his creative genius, but delinr^ates 
his arf;hilectoriie skill in the arrangement of the 
angf^ls' lieads. 

Out of the er(;ative rnirjd of Herring springs 
forth that beautiful eoneeption, " Pliararjh's Horses." 
Tlui artist is reflective^, contemplative and idealistic 
and pen(;trates the canvas with his own 
thought. The id(;a seeks that form which 
is capable of expressing its meaning and th(i meaning 
in turn is exprt^ssed through the ext(irnal symr^fjl. 
Fra Angelica portrays the Christian doc- ,.Ya 

trine; of spiritual longing and aspiration. Armdirai 
He was a devoted student of art, and at the same 
time a devout monk, and expressed the intf^nse 
ndigious f(;eling of his own soul. ''The Annuncia- 
tion" [jaintfid on the wall of a monastf^ry, illustrates 
a combination of architecture and painting. The 
picture represents Gabriel just descending from 
\i('av('j\. In a half kneeling attitude he announces 
thft divirjf; message to Mary who rficeives Uut an- 
nunciation with rcjsignation and meekness. T\i(t 
beautiful tints of this painting harmonize with the 
thought and sentirnctnt of the fjroduction. 

Titian was an idealist and painted out of the 
fullness of his mind. He did not imitate 
nature, but painted the inner subjective, 
reflective consciousness of th(; true soul of an artist. 

Rembrandt, the great Dutch painter was an orig- 
inal thinker and a star of the first magnitude in the 



252 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

great cluster of artists. He was both an 

Rembrandt . , ,. , ,. . . 

idealist and realist, now pamtmg the 
objective realities of the world and now expressing 
the inner truths of life. By means of light and 
shade he was able to express the most varied 
thoughts and the most delicate emotions. The 
painting, ''Jeremiah," reveals the profound thought 
Michael of Michacl Angelo and externalizes the 
Angeio inner activity of a great thinker. Some 

one has said, ''he was not a great painter nor a 
great colorist but a great draftsman, a great sculptor 
and a profound thinker." His ideal conceptions 
were the result of a vigorous mind, a vivid imagina- 
tion and the ability to paint or carve these thoughts 
into a beautiful expression. He had that artistic 
insight which enabled him to express the varied 
mental emotions through the modified form of the 
human body. In his "Last Judgment" he poured 
out his thoughts in a stream of living emotional life. 
Leonardo da Vinci painted "The Last Supper" 
upon the wall of a Milan monastery. He took as 
his pattern the table, the table-linen and the china- 
Leonardo ware of the monastery. The figures 
Da Vinci arouud the table are arranged in threes, 
but all are held in organic unity. They are Barthol- 
omew, James, Andrew, Judas, Peter, John, Thomas, 
James, the elder, Philip, Matthew, Thaddeus and 
Simon. It is said the artist was never able to 
finish the figures of Christ and Judas. He had the 
ability to sketch the inner secrets and mysteries of 
human life and used in a masterful way the delicate 



THE DOCTRINE 253 

tints of light and shade to picture the yearnings of 
the human soul. 

The beauty in Raphael's pictures does not depend 
upon facial expression, but upon architectonics of 
the productions. His skill as an artist is found in 
his ability to paint the picture as an 
organic whole. While the individuals are 
strongly marked in '^The Transfiguration" there 
is an organic unity in the production. Christ floats 
toward the source of light, the invisible Father, by 
whom all are made visible. On the right Moses 
appears in contrast with Elias on the left; the one, 
the law-giver, the other, the prophet. On the top 
of the mountain are the two disciples, John on the 
right, gracefully bending his face downward from 
the overpowering light, and James on the left hiding 
his face in humility. Peter, the bold, gazes directly 
on the splendor until finally he is overcome and is 
compelled to cover his eyes with his hands. 

Below the mountain are two groups. On the 
right, coming from the distant hamlet is seen the 
family in which the demoniac boy forms the centre. 
The boy is supported and restrained by his father 
who is predisposed to insanity. There is also seen 
in this picture the boy's mother, the mother's 
brother, her father, and an uncle who is a simpleton. 
This group is supplicating the nine disciples for 
relief who are sympathetic, but whose looks show 
they can do nothing. One holds the Law, but the 
letter needs the spirit to give it life. Andrew hold- 
ing the Law is Peter's brother; Judas is at the 



25^ Till-: i-:i)n(jATi()NAiv ri{(>cioss 

exin^rru^ Ivii; Maitli(;w is lookirj^ ow.r i]w. sliouldc^r 
of liartholoriKiW wlio is point/m^ to ilio dornoniac 
})()y. TlioniJis Ixuids over tlic hoy wiiJi itiicrisC 
itiicrcsl,, Sirnon is kri(M'lin^ bclwccn Thomas and 
Harl.holorrHiW, wiiilc Philif) is [)oinliii<^ io liu' s('('ru^ 
on Iho Monnl,ain. James, n'S('nd)Iin^ (-hiisi, stands 
Ix'liind .Ind(^ his hrol.hci". 

IOv(^ry iruv, work of art has an organic, unity wliicJi 
holds th(; i)arts together. Tfic ccrdral idcra of tiiis 
pn.intin/i; is th(r divine in contrMst, with the huniMM. 
Owuiir Ohrist/ nhovc is tf.'insfi^urcd and the 

^''"'•^ morlais Inflow arc illnniinatcd. AI)ov(! 

arc seen the (U'h^stial lij^ht-scckcrs in (tord.rast with 
the threes swooning disc/if)l('S. Bellow the rnountM,in 
arc ol)S(;rv('d two ^r()Uf)S in coidrjist; one l)rok('n 
in spirit, and tlu^ other sympathetic, and feeling 
the need of the Lord. The paint,in«!; (M)nsists of a 
series of dualisms held l,()/i;et her- hy the transfi«2;ured 
Christ. 

A work of arl, a|)|)eals t,o the senses hut it is th(^ 
rcjison whi(di <;ives it or^niiic unity. TIk; pic^turc^ 
lias a sensuous (^Hect upon Ihe ol)serv(M', and tln^ 
erd/in; i)M,intinfz; has il,s focal cerdTc in th(^ Savior. 
r]li;i,s inspiiM^d hy t,he ('clcstinl is opposil,e iho maniac 
hoy who is controlhul hy the dcmonijicjd. I'^lijis 
floats freely whih^ Moses (rarryin^' the heavy tables 
of th(^ Law seems to he supported hy tJie tree. 

In (/hrist-i.'ui art the idea seems t-o l)(^ too t,i-jin- 
sccndcnl, for art to express. The c.M,nvas is inadc- 
qun,t,(^ to rev(\al th(^ inner s[)iritual Ionf!;in^s. ('hrist 
in ct(^rnal unity witii the Absolute looks upward 



TUK DOCTRINK 255 

and expresses a dependence. T\w. two saints on 
thc^ light, St. Jjawrence and St. .Julian an; placed 
tli(;r(; to bear the nn^ssage to Christ that he; is ncuuhMl 
b(;low. TIh; transfigunui was a sf)iritual eiillty 
and to s(;e and und(^rstar)d this painting it is n(!C(;s- 
sary to look hciiuiath th(; sensuous for tlu; meaning. 
To think ihi\ painting is to n^traee th(i thought of 
Rapha(;l as Ik; })ours it out on canvas. Jt is again 
notic(!d that the; high(!st, dcepcist and final doctrine 
of thought is that the mind must (everlastingly 
tliink its [)roducts. TIk; delicate; shades of m(;aning, 
tlu; [)hysical and spiritual a[)f)earanc(; as drop|)e(J 
out of the mind of Jta[)hael, are to be obs(;rved and 
studied. 

'J'his discussion of ''The Transfiguration " is based 
uj)on an int(;rpr(!tation of this rnast(;rpiece in the 
Journal of Speculative l*hilosophy. 



THE TEACHING PROCESS 

THE LIFE PROCESS 

XVI. 

THE PROBLEM 

The school process realizes itself in the teaching 
process; the teaching process attains its final pur- 
pose in the life process. The school is organized 
that some one may be taught ; teaching not only 
prepares the individual for living, but is itself a 
life unfolding process. The purpose of the whole 
educational process is to train the individual into 
the consciousness of right living. The ultimate 
aim in education is knowledge, discipline, insight, 
inspiration, character and a well-rounded and noble 
life. No doctrine of education is complete that 
does not discuss the origin and nature of life and 
the fundamental principles underlying human intel- 
ligence and culture. 

Theories of Life. — Many of the great thinkers 
of the world have tried to solve the problem of hu- 
man life and the following theories are perhaps the 
most interesting forms of the solution: biogenesis, 
by parentage; creation, by an act of the Eternal 
Energy; abiogenesis, by the natural action of 
preexisting conditions in the ultimate 
logenesis constitution of things. The theory of life 
from life accounts for our own existence and for 
all organic life. The smallest microscopic organism 

256 



THE PROBLEM 257 

and the largest whale that plows the deep have 
their origin in preexisting life. This doctrine also 
explains the fossil life but does not give us any 
clue to the first life. According to the theory of 
creation there is an Infinite and Eternal Energy 
from which all things proceed. The mechanical school 
of thought makes life due to an interaction of matter 
and force. Dr. Biichner makes the statement that: 

"All organic beings owe their origin and propagation to the 
conjoint action of natural forces and materials." 

Haeckel makes physical and chemical properties 
of certain bodies the real cause of all organic life. 
The original life upon the earth has been accounted 
for by spontaneous generation. Dr. Bastian writes: 

"Both observation and experiment unmistakably testify to the 
fact that living matter is constantly being formed de novo in obedi- 
ence to the same laws and tendencies which determine all the more 
simple chemical combinations." 

Thomas Huxley denies the Doctor's statement 
and declares: 

"The doctrine of biogenesis is the only theory that will explain 
the nature and origin of life." 

It is a scientific fact demonstrated beyond the 
possibility of a doubt that life cannot come from 
the non-living. If we do not accept spontaneous 
generation, admits Haeckel, then we have to accept 
the miracle of a supernatural creation. Clifford 
made an ingenious guess at the origin of life and how 
living matter acquires the peculiarity of producing 
17 



258 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

its kind by combining spontaneous generation and 
mechanical action. A few years ago scientists 
made an attempt to explain the phenomenon of 
life by means of a vital force resident in living 
matter. This energy is life and manifests itself in 
living beings and at death is said to 

The Noil- & to ^ 

Mechanical Icavc the body. The non-mechanical 
school of thought adds a ''something 
beyond" to physical laws to produce life. Lotze 
combines mechanical laws with the ordered action 
of the Absolute in his theory of life. Another 
theory allied to this makes matter, originally 
endowed by the Creator with a subtle latent (qual- 
ity, contain the original germs of life. 

In the final statement of the problem of the 
origin of life there are two opposing hypotheses 
that are worthy of careful consideration: one is 
called the doctrine of special creation and the other 
the doctrine of derivation. The doctrine of special 
creation was accepted up to the time of Goethe. 
Fiske describes this doctrine by saying that a 
homogeneous clay model of human form was trans- 
formed into a heterogeneous combination of organs 
Creation and ^^^^^ tlssucs. The scicutist usually rejects 
Derivation ^j^^, spccial-creatiou theory and accepts 
the doctrine of derivation. According to this 
theory higher forms of life are gradually evolved 
from lower forms by the laws of variation, adaptation 
and heredity. In support of this life theory the 
scientist bases his arguments upon classification, 
embryology, morphology and distribution. The 



THE PROBLEM 259 

best thinkers of the world to-day accept the doctrine 
that the evolution of life from monera to millions 
of species of plants and animals has been a change 
from homogeneity to heterogeneity and that life 
both physical and psychical is — "The continuous 
adjustment of inner to outer relations." Herbert 
Spencer has given the most profound and complete 
definition of life known to the scientific world: 

"Life is the definite combination of heterogeneous changes both 
simultaneous and successive in correspondence with external co- 
existences and sequences." 

The Bible ascribes the origin of life to the creative 
act of God: 

"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. . . . 
All things were made by him; and without him was not anytliing 
made that was made. " 

The physicist speaks of life as a machine for 
doing work; the chemist defines life as a body of 
unstable compounds: the biologist analyzes all 
living creatures into organs and tissues; the philos- 
opher characterizes life as an inner correspondence 
to an outer environment. 

Doctrines of Mind. — Whatever may be the origin 
and nature of life, it is certain that its kindred force 
and highcvst form is mind. Lewes maintains that: 

" Both life and mind are processes and neither is a substance. " 

Fiske defines psychical life as the continuous 
establishment of subjective relations that are in 



260 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

correspondence with environing objective relations. 
There are three theories which attempt to explain 
the origin of mental life; namely, creationism, 
traducianism and evolutionism. 

Creationism teaches that God implants the 
divine spirit in man at birth. Dr. Ladd in explain- 
ing this theory asserts that ''God produces 'from 
himself an entity called a soul and puts it ready- 
made into the body." This author cannot conceive 
how a mind or a soul which has never performed the 
activities necessary to its existence can be placed 
ready-made in the body. 

Traducianism sets forth the theory that God 
breathed the breath of life into some remote ances- 
tor and that the race has inherited this mental 
characteristic throughout all ages. This doctrine 
transmits mental life through physical processes. 

Evolutionism makes man's mental life a process 
of development. The mind is, when it begins to 
act. Its origin is in and through its activities. 
Before the mind functions it does not exist. The 
mind does not spring into full existence at a leap, 
but is a process, a development. Dr. Ladd would 
have us believe that — 

"The existence of mind with respect to its origin, as well as with 
respect to the degree of its existence, is nothing apart from those 
activities in which the life and growth of mind consist." 

Naturalistic evolution denies the necessity of 
grounding first principles in a potential, spiritual 
energy. This doctrine attempts to explain life 



THE PROBLEM 261 

from purely mechanical forces. It supposes that 
at some period in the world-series through spon- 
taneous generation, the higher form was created 
out of the lower. However, the best scientific 
thought denies the possibility of generating the 
living out of the non-living and lays down the 
axiom that from nothing, nothing comes. 

The Spiritual Principle. — In order that natu- 
ralistic evolution may be possible it must be 
ultimately grounded in a spiritual principle which 
refers to an absolute first cause of the world. Among 
the mechanical forces of nature there must be some 
unitary, abiding and coordinating principle. This 
subtle causality is a spiritual entity and is the 
controlling power of all that is. The world move- 
ment cannot be explained on any rational basis 
except through this hidden power. It is impossible 
to explain the cosmic order unless the doctrine be 
grounded in a spiritual energy. To understand the 
evolution of the world it is necessary to connect its 
immanence with its transcendence. The immanent 
spiritual energy potential in the world is the result 
of a self-active Creator. 

The spiritual cosmic principle is absolutely neces- 
sary to the theory of organic evolution. It places 
at the heart of the world an energy struggling 
between potentiality and actuality. A living or- 
ganism is a synthesis of mechanical and physical 
forces. In the lower forms of life there is no complete 
return upon itself. When an individual has achieved 
sufficient world energy to return upon itself it marks 



262 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the dawn of the soul. The soul is a force 
Hidden having the power to transfer potency 

Power 

into actuality and to make a complete 
return upon itself, as in poetry and painting. 
Individuality is changed into personality and per- 
sonality is based upon spirituality. The soul is a 
spiritual energy whose essential nature is not activ- 
ity alone, but potentiality in a large degree. It is 
the law of the potential to realize itself constantly 
in the actual. The soul in its ultimate analysis is 
grounded in the self-activity of the Absolute. The 
world energy is transmuted into the soul and it is 
given the same movement as other world series; 
namely, a struggle between the ideal and real. 
The soul life grows and develops by a constant 
tension between its immanent and transcendent 
nature. The soul is a higher form of spiritual 
energy than that in life. In fact the soul is the 
climax of life development. There may be life 
without soul, but there can be no soul without life. 
Life and soul are not identical but the latter may 
be conceived as a species of the former. The crea- 
tive energy in the plant and animal is an adumbra- 
tion of the spiritual but only in man is there true 
soul activity. 

Pedagogical Inference. — This doctrine of life and 
self-activity has a pedagogical inference as it 
furnishes a basis for a rational system of education. 
Dr. A. T. Ormond in ''Basal Concepts in Phi- 
losophy" gives us the fundamental process in 
education: 



THE PROBLEM 263 

"A science of pedagogy, in order to be adequate, must have two 
ideas as its basis; namely, first, the idea of self-activity as the 
central category of the soul's life, and, secondly, the idea of a 
development of the soul's activities and powers. The first idea 
conceives the soul as actuality, the second as potence. Now, there 
is needed, in order that pedagogy may become a real science, such 
a conception of the soul as will make a rational synthesis of the 
category of self -activity and development possible. ... In 
the light of this theory, it is made clear that the process of soul- 
experience is a perpetual struggle of a thinking principle of spiritual 
individuality to overcome and transform an empirical nature that 
is dominated by mechanical categories and laws. It also becomes 
intelligible, that this process should give rise to an evolution of 
the soul's powers which follows the order of the development of 
actuality out of potence. This order, as the process of nature 
indicates, is from mechanism up to spirit. . . . All education 
is, teleologically, a spiritual fimction and must have as its end the 
awakening and development of the free self-activity of the human 
spirit. This free self-activity exists largely at first 
in a state of potency, and must be developed by a j^ pedagogy 
process which will lead it from the mechanical up to 
the spiritual. . . . Causation begins to dominate the growing 
intelligence of the child as a rational norm, which develops in it 
the historical consciousness and sends it out in a perpetual search 
for the efficient and final antecedents of things. . . . Now, we 
conceive that the ground principle of the secondary and higher 
education is to be foimd in this category of reflective reason in 
which the self-active spirit first achieves a rational standing-ground 
of its own as a free rational and personal agent; and the great 
business of the secondary and higher education will, therefore, be 
the development of this rational principle out of potence into 
actuahty. For it must not be forgotten that while the end of all 
ciilture is the quickening of the spirit, its pedagogical methods and 
the instruments it uses must adapt themselves to the stages of 
an evolution. " 

It is the function of education to develop the 
budding soul into a well-rounded life and to trans- 
form the hidden power lying dormant in the in- 



264 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

dividual into pure actuality. There is implanted 
within every individual a spiritual principle which 
is immanent in the world and education should 
reconcile these two kindred forces. The school 
becomes an important factor in human evolution 
when it assists the individual in constructing an 
ideal world of experience based upon the order, 
uniformity and intelligence of objective existence. 
The reign of law and the reign of purpose both 
presuppose a divine intelligence which pervades all 
things and is the hidden power of the universe. 
Education is given a cosmic significance when it 
binds nature, mind and God into one organic system 
of knowledge. 



XVII. 
THE TENSION OF HUMAN LIFE. 

The fundamental truth underlying the history 
of thought is, the universe is alive, and is a dynami- 
cal organism constantly struggling for a more 
perfect realization of itself. In penetrating into 
the hidden meaning of the world it is found to be, 
in the last analysis, a powerful energy which is ever 
converting possibilities into actualities and is a 
purposive activity looking forward to an end. 
There is an intelligent order in the world which has 
its sequence in human life and is the guiding prin- 
ciple in human activities. 

In the innermost constitution of all organic 
existence there is an ever present struggle between 
the old and the new, between the real and the 
ideal, and between what is and what ought to be. 
These mysterious processes are '^ God's way of doing 
things." All natural law is merely the law of God's 
own being. Every force in the world has its origin 
in the great Primal Force, and all energy from the 
Infinite and Eternal Energy. One of the Modem 

greatest conclusions of modern thought conclusion 
may be summed up as follows: all life, all growth, 
all development are due to a continuous, progres- 
sive change in accordance to certain natural laws 
and by means of a resident power immanent in 
things. In every acorn there is a pulsating, poten- 

265 



266 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

tial oak. Life and growth in the oak consist of a 
series of changes by which the potential oak becomes 
the actual oak and by which the old form is destroyed 
and a new being comes forth. This tension is caused 
by a force residing in the acorn, in the soil and in 
the sunlight. This force is the heart-beat of the 
world and is akin to God himself. Lowell thinks 
that, ''Every clod feels a stir of might." 

This tension in the vegetable world is a funda- 
mental law of all organic life and exists also in the 
animal kingdom. Tennyson happily explains the 
pranks of nature in his stanza upon the dragon- 
fly and sets forth a true philosophy of life. Notice 
here and there how charmingly nature realizes her 
Fundamental idcals iu thls mystcHous way! Notice 
^^"^ how beautifully the chrysalis unfolds into 

the butterfly! Notice how joyfully the warbler 
breaks its shell and goes forth on its mission of 
song! Why does the wounded eaglet chained to 
earth look up to heaven with a tear in his noble eye? 
How does it happen that the lark ascends and 
sings? What causes the poet to sing: 

"Ethereal minstrel, pilgrim of the sky, 

Dost thou despise the earth where cares abound?" 

These questions can be answered by saying that 
within the dragonfly, chrysalis, eaglet, lark and even 
the poet there is a resident force, an immanent 
something which moves each to the realization of 
the purpose for which it was created. In each there 
is a purposive adaption for some end to be realized 



THE TENSION OF HUMAN LIFE 267 

which implies that there is a supreme intelligence 
in the deeps of the world. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson in his ''Compensation'* 
states the law of the world and, therefore, the law 
of human life: — action and reaction, darkness and 
light, heat and cold, ebb and flow, male and female, 
inspiration and expiration, systole and diastole, 
attraction and repulsion, matter and spirit, sub- 
jective and objective. While there is an inner 
dualism in the world there is also a unity lying 
beneath the differences. The mind recognizes a 
fundamental reality in the constitution of things 
which manifests itself in a dual activity. The Law 
In both fauna and flora there is an abid- ofLife 

ing energy seeking perfection through contradictory 
elements. The upward life tendency is always a 
tension between the thing's lower and higher nature. 
There is not only a real conflict in the very nature 
of things, but there is also an interaction and 
causal relation binding things into a rational system. 
The structure of both thought and thing reveals 
the fact that there is a connecting power which 
organizes differences into unity. Dr. Borden P. 
Bowne in his "Theism" says: 

"We replace the transitive causality playing between things by 
an immanent causality in an all-embracing, unitary being." 

Human Action and Growth. — The great law of 
polarity running through the lower world is the 
main-spring of all human action and human growth. 
The plants and animals realize their ideals without 



268 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

plan or purpose. Man has not only inherited this 
tendency toward higher life, but has also the ability 
to set up his own ideals and by force of will and 
intelligence, transmute himself into those ideals. 
Within man's soul there spontaneously appear 
visions of a fairer life that he has not yet attained. 
These ideals and aspirations create within him a 
longing for more life, higher attainments and nobler 
conceptions of living. It is true that any human 
effort, though it be unsuccessful, may change the 
whole life, and the ideal although not realized still 
becomes a powerful influence in molding character 
and conduct. In order to understand the true nature 
and meaning of an individual the process is not clin- 
ical, but is a searching analysis of the soul's inner- 
most ideals. To understand the significance of a life, 
it is necessary to make a keen, inquiring insight into 
the individual's longings, yearnings and aspirations. 
Man's Inner and Outer Nature. — A close study 
of human life reveals the fact that man's outer 
progress springs from his inner longings and 
yearnings. What man realizes, man first idealizes. 
The actualized individual is first a potential being. 
The Shakespeare you know is the Shakespeare 
transformed by an ideal. The Raphael you know 
is the matchless painter transformed by an ideal. 
The Edison and Marconi you know are the great 
scientists transformed by ideals in electricity. The 
outer progress of these individuals has its origin in 
their inner thought and high endeavor. There is 
a natural tension within the depths of man's soul 



THE TENSION OF HUMAN LIFE 269 

that causes him to crave more life, broader and more 
humanitarian conceptions of life and to demand for 
himself the highest possibilities within his reach. 

If there be a human being destitute of ideals, 
devoid of aspirations, without longings and yearn- 
ings — that one is already dead. There is nothing 
so sad and tragic as the death of the soul's ideal. 
There is not anything so destructive to life and 
success as the failure of the heart to be attuned to 
the music of a noble ideal. However, there is 
nothing so grand as a fertilization of all that is 
true, beautiful and good, and nothing so worthy 
to be attained as a clearly thought out purpose of 
life. By fertilizing the higher life by the 
dust and ashes of the lower, man reaches 
that perfection which is the goal of all human 
endeavor. There is no incentive so powerful to 
keep one on the right track as to struggle to attain 
a high ideal. It is the headlight down the path of 
life that illuminates the journey and makes life 
worth living. A true life is a life of effort, a struggle 
toward higher attainments, a tension between the 
possible and the actual, a warfare between the lower 
and higher nature, a polarity between what I am 
capable of becoming and what I have already 
attained. Some one has declared: 

"The idea must be far enough above us to keep us looking up 
toward it all the time, and it must be far enough in advance of us 
to keep us struggling toward it to the end of life. " 

The Universal Tension. — There is a universal 
tension enthroned in the innermost essence of our 



270 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

being. We have inherited this fundamental prin- 
ciple of life from the world order and are, therefore, 
essentially related to the ultimate origin of things. 
It should be our highest glory to live every moment 
of our lives in harmony with this divine principle. 
Dying The life of a spiritual being is the continual 

To Live process of dying to live. Every step in 
the life of the spiritual is due to an antagonistic 
process of the natural. As the natural self dies the 
spiritual self is born. To die to live is as true as it 
is paradoxical. The true doctrine of life is — 

"He that findeth his life shall lose it." 

Self-realization is in and through self-sacrifice. 
Man is a rational being and has the power to trans- 
form his potence into actuality and to pass beyond 
the state of immediacy into the realm of higher life. 
It is the nature of spirit to extend itself beyond itself 
to its otherness. Man as a spirit is separated from 
his natural being in which there is imperfection and 
is gradually led to realize his spiritual freedom 
which is perfection. By means of knowledge and 
reflection, he finds out that he is not what he ought 
to be and hence increases his struggle to realize the 
highest life possible. 

The true life of a human being should be a process 
of perpetually becoming, ever striving, always pur- 
TheTrue sulug, coustantly struggling and joyfully 
-^'^^ attaining. In order to attain this high 

ideal of life we must carefully watch how we live. 
We must store our minds and store our soul with 



THE TENSION OF HUMAN LIFE 271 

the sweet and wholesome things of life. What is 
implanted in the soul as the years pass by, is carried 
to the grave. It is sometimes thought that you 
can break a law of nature. The laws of nature are 
as immutable and eternal as the everlasting God 
himself. You cannot break a law of nature, but if 
you continue to run counter to it, it will break you, 
physically, mentally and morally. Edward Howard 
Griggs has truly asserted, that to exist is to struggle; 
to struggle means self-realization; self-realization 
means personality. The life of human personality is 
a life of growth, a life of love, a hunger for truth, the 
devotion to ideals and the reverence for principles. 
The Highest Ideals of Life. — The loftiest attain- 
ments reached by mankind have been realized by 
those thinkers and humanitarians who live most 
truly and completely: Socrates, Bruno, Saint 
Francis of Assisi,. Martin Luther, Paul and Christ. 
It seems to be a law of life that the world's advanced 
thinkers and leaders must suffer for the Advanced 
doctrine taught. Socrates said: ''There ^^^^^^ 

is no danger of my being the last." The matchless 
philosopher while talking of death, immortality and 
the hope beyond deliberately drank the cup of 
poison. Bruno was an advanced thinker of funda- 
mental problems and his doctrine was far ahead 
of his time. Many years after he was condemned 
to death a monument was erected to his memory. 
Martin Luther stood firm in his doctrine and said: 

"I cannot and will not recant, God help me." 



272 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The life of Saint Francis of Assisi has many 
important lessons to teach to humanity. His 
earnestness, sincereness, sweetness, tenderness, keen 
spiritual insight and close sympathy for lowly life 
make him a representative of the most ideal doc- 
trine of life. He set forth the following ideals of 
life: To be good, to keep life pure, to keep one's 
spirit sweet and attractive, to try to be true to one's 
insight, to express in personal life the noblest ideals 
and to be happy in doing good and making others 
happy. After proclaiming the sublime doctrines of 
life Paul sufTered for the great truths enunciated. 
The life of the Great Teacher was a life of the 
spiritual, a devotion to truth, a life of love and the 
embodiment of the ideal of all ideals. 

The problem of life is to know the objective world 
which must flow back into man's nature if he real- 
izes his true destiny. To understand the content 
of our life, we must go beyond ourselves and peep 
into the universal thought of the world which is 
the other self we are struggling to attain. The 
life of reason is beyond us yet in us. That to which 
we surrender ourselves is in fact our real 
" self. An impulse for higher life is grounded 
in the very nature of thinking beings. The soul 
thirsts for something beyond itself, for something 
to complete itself and fulfill its mission. It is an im- 
manent principle of the human soul to hunger for the 
truth which is to make it free. The highest ideal 
possible in human life is to realize the consciousness 
of our own freedom. 



XVIII. 
THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE 

The life process may be interpreted scientific- 
ally, philosophically and poetically. The poetic 
interpretation of human life reveals the profound 
mysteries of human existence. 

"Literature is an artistic expression of life; art is the mode of 
expression; life is the thing expressed." 

The genetic principle which creates literature is 
the throbbing, pulsating life of the author. Liter- 
ature is not only a spontaneous outgrowth of human 
life, but it is also the best revealer and 
interpreter known of the life process itself. 
The constructive energy of life is the productive 
force in literature; namely, a struggle between the 
real and ideal. Literature is born through that 
spiritual activity in which the soul is seeking self- 
realization. The innermost core of human life is 
revealed and expressed in literature. To study 
literature assists the individual in actualizing his 
possibilities. It compares our real condition with 
our ideal condition and gives us an impetus to at- 
tain the greatest possibilities slumbering in our 
soul. The poet idealizes life and awakens within 
each literary student a longing for all that is truest, 
best and noblest. 

The Psychology of Poetry. — By studying a poem 
we are able to gain a clear insight into the spirit- 
18 273 



274 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

ual nature of the author. Poetry is an interest- 
ing and comprehensive text-book upon the subject 
of Psychology. We may speculate concerning the 
real nature of the human soul; we philosophize 
concerning the origin and nature of human knowl- 
edge; we may observe and interpret the facts of 
human consciousness; we may make laboratory and 
physiological tests of mental life; but as literature 
is a natural outgrowth of the human soul, it is, 'par 
excellence, the greater revealer, interpreter and 
translator of the life process. 

In poetry the author gives utterance to the 
deepest expressions of his heart and soul and 
reveals his motives, thoughts, feelings and volitions 

and hence externalizes the inner workings 
s^Lprophet of ^is spiritual nature. The poet is a 

soul-prophet and gives us in his pro- 
ductions the quintessence of his life. In literature 
we follow the actual movements of the inner, 
throbbing soul. In psychology we study man's 
spirit by introspection, analysis, induction, dis- 
section and experimentation. The poet alone has 
that penetrative insight, that keenness of thought, 
that inquiring attitude of mind which enables him 
to probe into the hidden recesses of the human 
heart and the human soul. He is a seer and has that 
divine vision which enables him to penetrate into 

the mysteries and complexities and subtle- 

Soul Life . - 1 T r mi 1 

ties 01 soul life. I he poet opens the win- 
dows of the soul and watches the mystic forces 
of mind move hither and thither. He penetrates 



THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE 275 

into the inner chamber of consciousness and dis- 
covers the man invisible which is made visible in 
literary form. He is a past master in picturing the 
motives, desires, aspirations and the whole ma- 
chinery of human consciousness. 
Edward Howard Griggs tells us: 

" Life itself is becoming a religion to-day. We are learning that 
there is nothing more sacred than a human being; and that the 
most tragic, pathetic or exalted motives are those drawn from the 
universal, yet intimately personal phases of daily experience. 
Wordsworth felt the dim presence of the new inspira- 
tion, and stammered it haltingly in the most exquisite 
of his unequaled works. Carlyle lived under its brooding presence, 
but incapable of voicing its positive message except in fragments, 
could only storm against its enemies. Shelley was the singer of its 
subtlety, Emerson the prophet of its exalted spirituality, Goethe 
the expression of its masterful self-affirmation, Browning the seer 
of its exultant love and joy." 

Browning "the subtle-souled psychologist" was 
the supreme analyst of the human soul as shown in 
the following quotation: 

"Truth is within ourselves; it takes no rise 
From outward things, whate'er you may believe. 
There is an innermost center in us all, 
Where truth abides in fulness. " 

Browning also explains the nature of knowledge: 

"To know 
Rather consists in opening out a way 
Whence the imprisoned splendor may escape, 
Than in effecting entry for a light 
Supposed to be without. " 

The poetical mind has that attribute which 
Worsdworth calls, ''The vision and faculty divine/' 



276 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Browning not only analyzes the activities of the 
soul, but gives us a clue to the fundamental process 
in education. 

To understand Tennyson is to study, to inter- 
pret, and to systematize his thoughts on God, 
Freedom, and Immortality. Tennyson was in- 
tensely interested in the deeper problems of human 
life. He was inclined to inquire — 

"into the laws 
Of life and death, and things that seem, 
And things that be, and analyze 
Our double nature, and compare 
All creeds till we have found the one, 
If one there be. " 

Tennyson took the position that God in his 

essential nature and being is unknowable. He is not 

an object of knowledge, but an object of faith. He 

makes a distinction between the knowing 

Knowing . , ,. . . , -- 

And mmd and the believmg mmd. He asserts 

e levmg ^^^^ ^-^^ aguostic is right in teaching that 
God is unknowable, but is wrong in saying the 
human mind is shut out from God. Faith tran- 
scends reason and lays hold on God. Knowledge 
deals with the phenomenal, but faith, the noumenal. 
In Memoriam, he writes: 

"We have but faith: we cannot know; 

For knowledge is of things we see; 

And yet we trust it comes from thee, 
A beam in darkness: let it grow." 

In ''The Two Voices," Tennyson discusses the 
problem of human life. He declares the cure of 



THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE 277 

the ills of life is more life — larger, fuller, completer 
life.— 

"More life and fuller that I want. " 

As an idealist, he reduced the external world to 
a spiritual principle. He once exclaimed, '* depend 
upon it, the spiritual is the real." Again 
he says, "spirit seems to me to be the 
reality of the world." The only reality to Tenny- 
son is spirituality. Matter is merely an outer mani- 
festation of spirit. — Infinite Spirit or finite spirit. — 

"the power to feel I am I. " 

Matthew Arnold defines poetry as a criticism of 
life. It criticizes the real life of the individual in 
contrast with the ideal life he hopes to attain. 
"The mute inglorious Milton" was one of the sub- 
limest of all minds. He contemplated and described 
some of the grandest themes of human Ufe. The 
multiplicity and variety of human Ufe is expressed 
by the many-sidedness of the poetic mind. poetic 

Dryden had the power of reasoning. insight 

Wordsworth taught the symbolism of nature. 
Swift showered abuse and ridicule upon his enemies. 
Burns's heart was attuned to the eternal melodies of 
the universe. Coleridge was inspired by that divine 
breath which penetrates the hidden mysteries of 
life. Hawthorne created the model novel through 
a knowledge of the psychological process of his 
own inner consciousness. He made a deep study 
of the soul and is thoroughly prepared to interpret 



278 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the real life process. Longfellow has been called 
the poet of sympathy and through his ''Psalm of 
Life" and other poems he reveals and interprets 
the many joys and sorrows of real life. In every 
Poetip fiber of Whittier's being there is a poetic 

Interpretation ^^pj.^,gg-Qj^ Hc Is Said to bc not Only a 

real poet, but all poet. The imagination of his 
brain and the affection of his heart were the chief 
characteristics of Holmes. George Eliot combined 
the speculative mind with the realistic imagination. 
She had the ability to analyze the deepest psy- 
chological problems. A few of the chief attributes 
of Goldsmith were delicate compassion, sympathy, 
generousness, humor, forgiveness and a benevolent 
spirit smiling on all. So long had the inner eye of 
Keats been fixed upon the beautiful, so long had 
he loved the visions splendid, that his soul took 
on the loveliness which he contemplated. Some one 
has said that the lines of the poet's face were chiseled 
into beauty by those sculptors called ideas and 
thoughts. Emerson makes the statement that we 
grow into the likeness of others by thinking the 
same thoughts. 

Channing has well said, ''It is forbidden for me 
to write or speak, but to aspire to be, to study 
hard, and to think quietly, to act freely, and talk 
gently. In a word let the spiritual grow up to 
perfection." When Arnold finds some one ready 
to graduate he whispers "One thing thou lackest. 
Let all thy life become one eager pursuit of knowl- 
edge." Carlyle tells us each new epoch in his life 



THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE 279 

began with the acquaintance of some great man. 
Only mind can quicken mind; only heart can 
quicken heart. 

Perhaps the deepest literary interpretation of life 
is found in what is known as the Literary Bibles — 
Homer, Dante, Goethe, Shakespeare. 

Homer. — Homer's ''Iliad" discusses the most 
sacred principle of the life process — the family. 
The poet fathoms the deeps of human existence. 
It consists of a scries of dualism, the most impor- 
tant of which is that between the human and divine. 
These two worlds are separating, yet intermingling, 
communing yet differing. This epic not only repre- 
sents a struggle between the human and divine 
but between the Occident and Orient. The purpose 
of this warfare was to restore Helen to her true 
institutional life. However, this was not a war 
for the restitution of an individual woman. Helen 
stood for a universal principle of social life. The 
beautiful Helen represents the race process, the 
restoration, civilization, freedom and the preser- 
vation of the home. This poem represents the 
heart-beat of humanity. The many conflicts, 
struggles and tensions in this poem once more 
emphasize the eternal law of the universe. The 
key-note to all existence, to all life, to all human 
life in particular is a tension between the possible 
and the actual and the final word of all existence is 
self-realization, freedom. The creative, architec- 
tonic principle of all literature is the soul trying 
to attain more life. 



280 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Dante. — "The Divine Comedy" treats the life 
process as the process of death. It discusses the 
two lives of man, one of matter, and the other of 
spirit. It interprets the two fundamental prin- 
ciples, thou shalt surely die, and thou shalt surely 
live. Dante teaches that the final purpose of man 
is to shuffle off animality and become a spirit. 
It unifies the temporal life process with the ever- 
lasting life process, the seen with the unseen. Out 
of this dual process in the poem arises a harmony. 
The theme of the Divine Comedy is universal and 
intensely human, and ''tells the tale of how man 
makes himself eternal.'^ 

Goethe. — ''Europe's sagest head" in comment- 
ing on "Faust" often spoke of the self-unfolding 
idea of the poem. It is constructed according to 
a law that is found in the poem itself. In the first 
soliloquy Faust is represented as a man who has 
spent years studying philosophy, jurisprudence, 
medicine and theology. He finally comes to the 
conclusion that man cannot know truth. However 
it is by means of knowledge that he denies knowl- 
edge, but at the same time it is by means of aspira- 
tion that he affirms the validity of truth. The 
theme of "Faust" is the theme of all poetry and 
philosophy — the problem of knowledge. 

Shakespeare. — "The thousand-souled " poet was 
the prince of psychologists. He had that penetra- 
tive genius which enabled him to analyze and 
dissect the human soul. More can be learned 
concerning the intricacies and activities of man's 



THE INTERPRETATION OF LIFE 2S1 

spiritual nature by reading Shakespeare than by 
studying any ordinary treatise on psychology. 
Shakespeare in his ''to be or not to be" strikes at 
the fundamental problem of human life. It repre- 
sents the irresistible conflict between optimism and 
pessimism. There is nothing in the English language 
that excels Hamlet's description of man: 

"What a piece of work is a man! how noble in reason! how 
infinite in faculty! in form and moving how express and admir- 
able! in action how like an angel! in apprehension how like a God! 
the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals!" 

In fighting life's battles, we might do well to 
follow Lady Macbeth, ''screw your courage to the 
sticking place" and again, "what's done is done" 
and frequently can never be remedied. According 
to Cassius "I cannot tell what you and others may 
think of this life, for my single self I had as lief 
not be as live to be in awe of such a thing as I my- 
self." Again is the true life process interpreted: — 

"The fault dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 
But in ourselves that we are imderlings. " 

Shakespeare in his literary productions has made 
a complete analysis of the life process. He has 
portrayed every phase of human life, every emo- 
tion, every thought, and every life tendency. He 
has made a complete interpretation of human 
existence and has expressed every conceivable 
intellectual, moral, social, and religious phase of 
human life and human development. 



282 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Trowbridge has fully described the real process 
of life and gives below the practical and essential 
doctrine of human activity. 

"Give him a lift, don't kneel in prayer, 
Nor moralize at his despair. 

The man is down and his great need 

Is ready help not prayer and creed. 
'Tis time when womids are naked and healed, 
That the inward spirit be revealed, 

But what ere the spirit be, 

Mean words and hollow mockery. 
One grain of aid just now is more 
Than tons of saintly lore. 

Pray, if you must, within your heart. 

But give him a lift, give him a start. 
The world is full of good advice. 
Of prayer and preaching nice, 

But generous souls that aid mankind 

Are like diamonds hard to find. 
Give like a Christian, speak in creeds, 

And he shall wear a regal crown, 

Who gives a lift when men are down. " 



THE UNIVERSAL PROCESS 
XIX. 

THE LOGICAL PROCESS: IDEA 

The school process, the teaching process and the life 
process must finally be grounded in a universal 
process. These educational processes are given a 
deep significance by connecting them with world 
relations. The abiding energy in the world is the 
formative principle in education. That which 
creates the world and makes it rational, organizes 
the school and makes teaching spiritual. Every 
factor in the school and every movement in teach- 
ing and life are related to an eternal process which 
gives unity to difference. Educational principles 
should be based upon a world movement in order 
to be made fundamental and abiding. The spiritual 
principle creating the school is actualized in teach- 
ing and life and universalized in the world process. 

The World Process. — The true reality of the 
educational process and the abiding element of 
the world constitute one universal process grounded 
in reason. Reason is the underlying principle of 
all thought and all things and is the substratum of 
every institutional activity. 

"The absolute or logical idea exists first as a system of ante- 
mundane concepts, then it descends into the unconscious sphere 
of nature, awakens to self-consciousness in man, realizes its content 
in social institutions, in order, finally, in art, religion and science to 
return to itself enriched and completed." 

Falckenberq. 

283 



284 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

From the beginning of the history of tliought a 
unity of the workl has been presupposed. This 
unitary principk) has been conceived to be a single 
substance, a matlieniatical relation, a flux of things 
and finally an immaterial reality. The ultimate 
problem of the ancient thinker was to understand 
u„i,,iry the world as i)urposive and the product 
Principles ^^j- ^pij-it, aud to comprcheud the under- 
lying rationality of the universe. The final solu- 
tion of the cosmic problem is made by rooting the 
thing world in the thought world. Unless the law 
of tliought equals the law of things, no interpreta- 
tion can be made of the world. In reading the book 
of nature we translate the world thing into a thought 
thing. This ])rocess is possible only upon the as- 
sum[)tion that there is a universal reason which 
connects the two series. To know the world is to 
think the world and to think the world is to unify 
the rationality of mind with the meaning of objec- 
tive existence. 

Thought can think the world only by presup- 
posing that they have a common rational origin. 
The thinker behind the world and the thinker 
behind the thing are commensurable, hence a uni- 
fication and a knowledge of the world become 
possible. Since the world without and thought 
within have a common element, the cosmic order 
can be assimilated by finite thought to the extent 
of its ca[)acity. It is self-evident to all that the 
mind can never know anything beyond the sphere 
of thought. If the world be knowable, if knowledge 



THE LOGICAL PROCESS: IDEA 285 

be possible, then nature is realized mind and the 
thinker finds himself in the thing. 

World Knowledge. — A knowledge of the world 
is based upon the constructive activity of the mind 
in the interpretation of the thing series and also 
upon the fact that the cosmic order is an expression 
of supreme thought binding the two into a rational 
coherence. Both thought and knowledge owe their 
existence to a world intelligence which makes 
things thinkable and knowledge possible. The 
intelligence in the world to become knowledge must 
be transmuted into finite mind and organized by 
thought into rational relations corresponding to 
the outer order. The meaning in the world series 
becomes knowledge in the thought series worw and 
in and through a universal, spiritual Thought 
connecting energy. A knowledge of the world is 
obtained by the mind building into itself a knowl- 
edge structure of the contents of things. The 
thought of the world does not pass into the think- 
ing mind, as you would pass a coin to another, 
but through the constructive energy of the mind it 
takes on to itself the meaning and significance of 
what is external to itself. The unification which 
takes place in thought and knowledge is not a 
thing unification, but a meaning unification. In 
one continuous equation the laws of things = the 
laws of thought = the laws of knowledge. The 
world which the mind grasps is a thought world 
and if the real world is not an expression of thought 
and does not have an intelligent basis it is cut ofT 



286 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

from all relation to the mind. The parallelism of 
thought and thing converges into a bond of knowl- 
edge wholly upon the hypothesis that the thing 
series has an organic relation to the thought series. 
Knowledge and spiritual freedom are attained by 
the mind incorporating into its own constitution 
the law, order and intelligence immanent in the 
world. In the educational process the mind finds 
itself in the world, realizes its own freedom and 
bridges the chasm between Uu) thinking mind and 
the intelligent universe. 

The Eternal Reason. — The primitive idea is the 
eternal reason which evolves itself into a world 
order and thought series. "The idea itself is a 
dialectic which forever divides and distinguishes the 
self-identical from the differentiated, the subjective 
from the objective, the finite from the infinite, 
soul from body. Only on these terms is it an 
eternal creation, eternal vitality and eternal spirit." 
Whatever form the idea may assume, whatever 
creation the idea may penetrate, whatever insti- 
tution the idea may establish, it forever remains 
reason. It is the central principle of the universe 
and objectifies itself in nature, in school, in teaching 
and in life. The idea which creates the world of 
objective reality and organizes the school is not an 

immaterial substance bordering upon the 
Productive mystical, but an immanent constructive 

power working out in actuality all the 
potentiality slumbering within the depths of the 
eternal reason. The school is what it is by virtue of 



THE LOGICAL PROCESS: IDEA 287 

this ideal self-creating principle which has not only 
the power of initiation, but also self-realization. 
This element in the school is causa sui, self-deter- 
mining, self-supporting, and self-explanatory. This 
fundamental principle in the school and the world is 
the living spirit of all that is actual, pervading all 
forms of activity and dominating all phases of 
institutional life. It has the essential characteristic 
of productiveness and underlies all literature, sci- 
ence, art and education. It is the immanent prin- 
ciple found in every process of education and the 
substratum of all world existence. The heart of the 
school beats in unison with the heart of the world. 

The eternal reason is the connecting factor in 
every process of the school, the all-embracing energy 
upon which the teaching process depends and the 
fundamental reality sustaining life itself. This 
universal reason is a cycle, self-return, subject- 
object, the connecting link in the great educational 
chain and the paradisaical state to which all educa- 
tive forces tend. This educational bliss is the 
perfect unification of teacher and pupil in the organ- 
ization of the school, the complete identification 
of the pupil and the subject studied, and the total 
development of a perfect life. 

The Idea a Process. — The idea is essentially a 
process because it consists in that round of move- 
ment known as source, separation and return. 
This triadal process has its root in thought or 
intelligence. This intelligible foundation of the 
world has been called ''idea" by Plato and HegeL 



288 Tin: EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Tho internal rational (essence of the world and the 
school, we call "thought." It is that which gives 
\\U) and vitality to all things, physical, educational 
and institutional. TIh^ final (tause of the world and 
the s(*lio()l is not a njechanisni, but a spiritual 
principle. Every s('ho()l ])roc('ss, v,wvA-y (ulucational 
process has an internal finality which coordinates 
and organizes the various parts into a systematic 
whol(^ In studying the educational process i\w, 
subjective; school must not be confounded with the 
()l)je(d/iv(5 school, because; the hittcT is finite; and 
imperfect and tlu; former is spiritual and jx'rfc^ct. 
It is the concept of the; school proce'ss that makes 
it spiritual, anel it is spii'itual in e)reh;r that it may 
re'alize; its conce'pt. 

Idea in Education. 'I'he fundame;ntal triadie; pre)e;- 
<;ss in education is source', se'paration anel re;turn. 
Soure',e is the ideal, constructive; e;ne;rgy e)riginating 

the sche)e)l and its pre)e;e'sses. Separa- 
Tiiiuiic tie)n is tlie; e)b,jcctifieei ieh'a developing 

the course; e)f study anel formulating a 
body e)f eloctrines to be; taught in the school. To 
return fre)m this se;i)aration back to the original 
source; is the; final aim in eelucation and is attaine;el 
in and through the; teutching proce;ss. It is through 
the activity of the human soul that the cycle of 
the; worlel is made to harme)nize with the cycle of 
thought. It is the purpose e)f e;elucation to objectify 
the' self into the world of thought anel to bring that 
enricheel se'lf bae;k through a subject-object process 
calleel knowleelge. 



THR LOGICAL PROCESS: IDEA 280 

The; univ(;rsal process in educniiou sets forth the 
doctrine that the objective processes in the outer 
worhl harmonize and correspond to processes in 
th(^ mental worhL The cycles of the univc^rscj have 
a kindred nature to the cycles of mental Hfc;. In 
pure contemplation the soul derives nothing from 
itself, but acts as a mirror in reflecting the thought 
of the world into its inner life. In sci(;ntific discov- 
ery, in poetic and artistic productions the soul not 
only has thought, but there is such an inner f(;rtility 
of mind that it creates thoughts, types and forms. 
(Creation is a high(;r form of activity than contem- 
plation. 

"To enjoy a truth \h evidently not ho Hweet as to enjoy the 
conquest of truth; to contemplate txjautiful works of art cannot 
equal the pleasure of creating them; the pleasuro of a virtue jirac- 
ticed is nothing compared to the pleasure caused by a triumph 
over actual temptation; and, in general, productive activity is 
superior to mere contemplation." 

Paul Jankt. 

The mind before creating the school creatcis the 
type school. This ideal type contains in itself all 
th(i multiplied forces and factors making up the 
actual school. The type school is the The Type 
essence and the external obj(!ctiv(; fixed ^*'^"'"' 

school is the existence. In every school there is 
a creative intelligence and a contemplative intelli- 
gence. While the former originates the school the 
latter recognizes the spiritual principle in the school 
and the knowledge containiMl in subject-matter. 
The teacher, the poet, the artist have creative 

19 



290 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

activity, while the student, the reader, the observer 
have contemplative activity. In the process of 
education the inner life of the soul is never con- 
sidered a finished product, but a possibility forever 
changing into an actuality. Education is based 
upon the theory that — 

"What thought discusses in phenomena is a manifestation of 
the divine and universal reason." 

Finality in Education. — The final cause of all 
educational processes is soul activity. The internal 
rational essence of the school, of teaching and of 
life is a thought activity. Every process in educa- 
tion and every process in nature may each be equally 
called ideas externalized. The final cause of the 
school is the originating cause which is in its ulti- 
mate analysis a spiritual essence. It is a law of 
mind that it constantly endeavors to attain the 
The Eternal ultimate causc or reason of things. The 
Reason suprcmc rcasou of the world, which is one 

with the internal meaning of the school, is the 
Absolute Idea. Both the school and the world are 
embraced in the eternal reason. The essential char- 
acteristic of this supreme principle is the fact that 
it reveals itself in some external form. The fun- 
damental principle of reason which explains every 
process in education is a principle of activity and 
a principle of knowledge. The Absolute Mind is the 
supreme expression, ground and end of all existence. 

The Notion in Education. — The notion is that 
underlying force pervading all things and is in its 



THE LOGICAL PROCESS: IDEA 291 

ultimate essence a personality. It is a self-deter- 
mining energy which has the power of transmuting 
the potential into the actual, the real into the ideal. 
It is the immanent in all things and unifies and 
organizes the chaotic educational world into ra- 
tional order. The notion in its essential nature is 
creative and productive, and is the fundamental 
energy in all educational processes. It is a thought 
force which constantly strives to realize itself in 
the objective. A school is what it is by virtue of 
the notion immanent in its process. A 

. . , Function 

process in teachmg is what it is through ofthe 

the activity of the notion embodied in it. 
The fundamental process in education is a self- 
realizing act in which the subject is active in and 
through the object. J. G. Hibben says: 

"It is of the very nature of the subjective as a thought activity 
that it should strive to realize itself in the objective. " 

The notion here discussed is not a psychological 
term but in its onward movement is a develop- 
mental process. In plant life it is the development 
of the oak tree from the acorn. In animal life 
it is a change from germinal matter to the 
robin. In man the evolution of the notion is a 
transition from potence to actualized life 
called self-realization or self-development. 
There is innate in the pupil a pent-up energy 
struggling to realize itself through work, develop- 
ment, education. 



292 Till': MDIICA'I'IONAL rK()(;i<:ss 

"'I'Ik' i(l<-u of <lcv(I«)i)rti(;nl,, Uio coiiliiuiouH unfolding of all tluil, 
Ih |)(»l,(;ril,i;i,l in l,li<; nol.ion, (lofriiindu a Hiii^lo unifyinf^ i)rin(',ij)l(5 
in Ui<» iiiidHi, of I.Ik! HiiiM!r-jil)oiui(]iri^ <liv(!rHi(,y of (M)iit(5ii(,, inurii- 
f(?Hl,iii^ ilHolf in !i |)i-of;;n!HHiv<; proroHH in wlji(tl) (;u(;li >siic,co(!(iing 
n(,h/^<i Ih tnoHi vx)U\\>h.{.('\y rruli/.dd (.li.-iri Mm; on<; brforo." 

'rilis (jiioL'iUon I'loiii Hihix'ri strikes m,1, Mh^ very 
lic.'irl, of 1,Ih^ (loctriiM; of (Mliicjilion H(;l lorMj in Miis 
hook iind is h solid foiindnl-iou for huildiri/i; ;tny 
l.licor-y of |)('(l;i;^o«z;y. This l.cxl, ;iims m,1, roiindjitiori 
piinc.iphiH in (ulu(^•ltioIl, Ihr. underlying ^-[round of 
the school, tli(! univeis.'il Inw in Icjichin^, the funda- 
mental life proctess, .'uul tli.'tt or^jiniziri^ jtnd co- 
ordinating world inovernent, the eteiiial re.'ison, 
which ^ives life nrid <'.\istenc(; to all thought and 
to all things. 



XX. 

THE COSMIC PllOCKSS: NATIJItlO 

Nat(;rio is a form of th(; (eternal reason and an 
all-inclusive system of Halations. The; sf)i ritual 
principh; in nature is the; source of tlu^sc; Halations 
which constitute; human exp(!ri(!nc(; and which is 
th(; unifying [)rincipl(; of the world. 'J'hc; activity 
of thought in gaining a knowledge; of these; Halations 
harmonizes with the; activity of divine mind in 
establishing th(;m. 1'h(; thinking human intelli- 
g(;nc(; works in unison with the; thinking, cn;ativ(; 
int(;llig(;nce. That in natun; which is an object of 
thought to me is det(!rmin(;d by tin; r(;lations which 
my thought (;stabiish(;s. In the Kantian sense; the; 
understanding makes nature;. 

Scheilling calls nature; an uneie;ve;le)[)e;el, slumbcr- 
irig, unce)nscie)us, be;nurrd>e;el intelligence. He teaches 
that e;very proeluct in nature; is the; re;sult of a f>osi- 
tive;, centrifugal, acce;le;rating, unive;rsalizing fe)rce; 
and a ne;gative;, limiting, r(;tarding, inelivieJualizing 
one;. The cre;ative activity of nature; is unbe>uneJeM] 
anel is se;e;n in the; struggle; for e;xiste;nce; in all en-gnnie; 
matte;r. This dualism in nature; is a ce)smic [>rine;iple; 
which affe;cts not only the; mate'rial unive;rse; [)ut is 
the; projectile force establishing social anel ejeJuca- 
tie)nal institutions. This struggle; between the 
universal and the ineiivielual cremates the school, 

29:i 



294 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

develops the fundamental law in teaching, explains 
the thinking process and makes the nature and 
meaning of life sun-clear. 

Nature and Mind. — We are beginning to under- 
stand that nature and mind are not two con- 
tradictory elements in the world, but that they 
form one organic whole. Nature implies mind and 
mind finds itself in a living relation to nature. Nature 
is i)ermeated by mind, and hence intelligence can 
grasp the meaning of nature. When mind finds 
itself in nature and when nature yields up its essence 
to mind, then the individual has realized aesthetic 
freedom. Nature does not exist in opposition to 
mind but they belong to one organic system of 
Esthetic knowledge. The whole universe, mind and 
Freedom naturc included, is a process consisting of 
law, order and rationality. The beauties, complex- 
ities and infinity of nature are manifestations of the 
eternal reason. The organic life of reason is the 
reality of both mind and nature and the inner con- 
necting force in all educational processes. The 
cosmic process is a manifestation of reason and 
reflects itself in the consciousness of mankind. The 
essence of reason is to make itself known in some 
objectified form of nature or mind. It is the func- 
tion of mind to bridge the chasm between itself and 
nature and to bring back to itself what was once 
estranged. The eternal reason is the heart of nature, 
the vital energy in organic life, the spiritual principle 
in man. This fundamental energy is both imma- 
nent and transcendent, both potential and actual. 



THE COSMIC PROCESS: NATURE 295 

The mind does not exist in and through itself, 
but in and through nature which is other than 
itself. Nature is not isolated and cut ofif from mind 
but has its reality only in relation to a thinking 
subject. The unity of nature and mind is realized 
in their difference and their difference presupposes 
their organic unity. Nature is a system of thought 
relations and results from the activity of mind. 
Thinkers arc gradually accepting the doctrine that 
out of the absolute are objectified all the processes 
of nature and man. It is by means of a thinking 
human soul that the cycle of the world is completed 
and that man becomes identified with the eternal 
process by ''Thinking God's thoughts after him." 

Nature Study. — The purpose of nature study 
is to infuse new life and meaning into the course 
of study. It is a means rather than an end. To 
place the multiplied forms of nature in the hands 
of pupils trains them in observation, perception, 
judgment, discrimination, and gives them an im- 
petus and an interest in school work. It quickens 
mental life by using fresh knowledge and opens the 
child's mind to the beauties and complexities of 
nature. It is also a powerful factor in developing 
the aesthetic nature of the child. The beauty of form 
and color, the adaptation and unity in nature fill the 
child's life with all that is pure, noble and lovely. 
This love of the beautiful may be further increased 
by a study of nature-art and nature-poetry. 

The study of nature affords the child an oppor- 
tunity for truth-seeing and truth-teUing. It culti- 



296 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

vates the child's ethical nature by requiring him to 
perform many acts of positive good deeds. It 
gives a basis of right living and trains the child to 
refrain from killing birds, destroying fruits and 
teaches him to accomplish something worth while. 
The chief purpose in nature study is to afford the 
school a basis for expressive work. Expression 
presupposes organized thought activity. The more 
interesting the content of expression, the more 
easily is the expression made. 

Language. — Nature study is almost indispensable 
in teaching composition and language. It usually 
appeals so vividly to the child that he has a burn- 
ing desire for utterance. It puts the child in the 
attitude of writing from inside out, rather than from 
outside in. Nature gives the child such an inspira- 
tion that he cannot refrain from composing. The 
attributes, parts and relations of nature constitute 
a logical arrangement leading to composition. The 
composition is literally in nature itself. The child 
thinks the thoughts and ideas in nature, and gives 
expression to them in a spontaneous manner. 
The truth, law and order inherent in nature lead 
to a rational expression, in language and composi- 
tion. The composing process is an objectification 
of an inner idea in nature into an outer form 
of language. 

Reading. — The first reading lessons should be the 
child's own composition based on nature study. 
These lessons should gradually develop into story, 
narration, and description. Emphasis should be 



THE COSMIC PROCESS: NATURE 297 

placed on processes, functions and relations of 
living activities. Nature lessons should gradually be 
expanded into informational and inspirational exer- 
cises. The child should read those lessons of nature 
which are most interesting and most true to life. 

Drawing, — Work in drawing should be correlated 
with composition and reading. The forms of nature 
afford a splendid basis for work in drawing. The 
form, size and position of all objects studied in 
nature should be expressed by drawing. The 
natural object inspires the child to express his 
ideas not only in language, but also by some form 
of sketching. Drawing is also taught from inside 
out and is made a most interesting school exercise. 
Plants and animals appeal most strikingly to the 
child, in drawing exercises. The school-garden, 
training the child in pruning, budding and grafting 
trees, plowing, hoeing and fertilizing land, planting, 
cultivating and reaping crops, is a most valuable 
equipment for any school and gives much material 
for drawing, sketching, painting and color work. 

Extensive and Intensive. — The first form of 
nature study should extend over the entire realm 
of nature. After the child knows something of 
everything, he is ready to know everything of 
something. Bird life and language are perhaps the 
most interesting and soul inspiring phases of nature 
study. A study of the songs of birds may be made 
interesting, instructive and entertaining. To make 
an intense study of bird life or any other phase of 
nature gives the child the scientific impulse and 



298 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

initiates him into the scientific spirit. Nature 
study brings pupils in touch with the world of 
science, cultivates perceptive thinking and formu- 
lates a body of knowledge most valuable in edu- 
cation. 

The Unity of Science. — After students have 
been trained in elementary and advanced science 
they should be finally taught the universal element 
in knowledge, the principles and laws beneath the 
phenomenal world, the ultimate unity and reality 
of all science and knowledge. It is impossible to 
study and teach any department of knowledge 
correctly without taking into consideration its 
organic relation to all other knowledge. There is 
a reciprocal relationship existing between all depart- 
Knowiedge Hients of scicuce and a connecting link 
Related chaining them into one organic whole. 
Correlation is not a matter of juxtaposition of 
subjects from a mechanical point of view, but a 
study of the deeper relations existing in the very 
nature of science. According to Dr. Caird, ^'The 
presupposition which is the secret stimulus of 
intelligence and of the desire for knowledge, is the 
possibility of finding reason, rational coherence, 
connexion, system in all things; the conviction that 
in the whole realm of being, in nature and in man, 
in matter and spirit, from the least and lowest 
material object up to the highest intelligence, there 
can be no dualism, no contradiction, no contingency, 
no gap or gulf which it is impossible for thought to 
bridge; and this is virtually the notion that there 



THE COSMIC PROCESS: NATURE 299 

is really only one science, of which the various spe- 
cial sciences are but arbitrary divisions or degrees." 

Teachers and students should not be satisfied to 
master an isolated science, but should seek an 
insight into those causal relations which bind the 
world together. In the onward sweep of thought, 
the chasm between mind and matter, nature, and 
spirit should forever be closed. We must continue 
to search after the unity of things until unity in 
nature, mind and God are shown to Diversity 
belong to one organic system of knowledge. The 
mind, a unity and diversity, seeks unity in divers- 
ity in the world. This unity is not one of coexist- 
ence and sequence merely, but one implying a 
process or development. There is a law or reason 
running through the world unifying the mechanical 
and chemical, the organic and inorganic and matter 
and spirit. In the gradual development of the world 
one order of nature implies and prophesies a higher 
stage of existence. The mind in tracing out this 
unitary principle finally arrives at its own self-con- 
sciousness in which it is able to think the world in 
existence and to think it in the process of becoming 
an objective reality. 

It has been shown that the world, education, 
the school, teaching and life itself are processes. 
These are not distinct processes, but phases of 
a fundamental world movement. Harmonizing 
with this doctrine, the mind is constantly changing 
and developing from existence to sensation, from 
sensation to consciousness and from consciousness 



300 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Rational ^o the highest stage of thought. There 
Coherence jg ^^ |gg^p ^^j. g^jf jj^ ^j^g physical or in- 
stitutional world and no gap nor chasm in mind 
evolution. The whole world is made up of system, 
relation, connection and rational coherence. 

It is usually considered that science treating of 
the laws and phenomena of nature is antagonistic 
to philosophy treating of mind and the fundamental 
categories of thought. There is a class of thinkers 
who scoff at the philosopher who are nevertheless 
philosophers in spite of themselves. They pro- 
claim from the house-top, facts, matter, material 
forces, and that mind itself is a mere function of 
matter. They preach the doctrine of psycho- 
physical parallelism and maintain that 

Philosophers i • i /• i , i 

physical forces are somehow converted 
into psychic activities. In the first place facts 
and experience are impossible without the laws of 
thought. It has been well said: 

"You cannot reach mind as an ultimate product of matter 
and force; for in doing so you have already begun with mind." 

A fact is a thing made by the mind and has no 
existence except in relation to the mind. If mind 
is subtracted from a fact, if thought is extracted 
from an object, there is only a questionable fact 
or object remaining. The fact student, the experi- 
mentalist, does not wholly deal with hard material 
facts but uses law, force, matter, cause, effect, 
likeness and difference, substance and attribute, 
purpose and means, and becomes a philosopher in 
spite of himself. 



XXL 

THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 

The logical process traces the absolute intelli- 
gence in its movement to self-consciousness, sepa- 
rating itself from itself and returning to itself in 
order to know and understand itself. The cosmic 
process reveals the mind principle in nature and 
unfolds the process by which nature loses its identity 
and becomes spirit. The spiritual process explains 
how this estrangement is removed, how spirit 
identifies itself with itself and how it attains its 
formal essence, freedom. The mind buried in nature 
gradually unfolds itself into consciousness, self- 
consciousness and reason. This awakening from 
its bondage, by which it identifies itself 

11.. T 1 1 1 . 1 Mind Free 

With the object immediately, by which 
it knows itself in determining the object and by 
which it knows the object as its own process is an 
act of spiritual creativity. The mind in its final 
evolution becomes rational and universal by com- 
pleting the cycle and recognizing in its otherness a 
spiritual principle akin to itself. The mind's impulse 
to think and to act, splits itself into a scission of 
the real and the ideal. The primal activity of spirit 
is to assert itself in contradistinction to the not- 
self, to separate itself from itself, and to return 
from this estrangement to itself, enriched and 

enlarged. 

301 



302 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Self-activity which is self-conscious activity and 
which is the fundamental principle in every educa- 
tional process is the basis of all knowledge and 
Self- freedom. Prof. Ormond says the soul is 

Activity j^Q^ p^j,g actuality, but rather a spiritual 
energy constantly passing from potence to actuality. 
According to this statement all education is a process 
in the unfolding of self-conscious activity. The 
self-activity of spirit is the basis of all knowledge 
and the origin and explanation of every process 
in education. The fundamental process in educa- 
tion, in the school, in teaching, in thinking, in life, 
is ground in a universal process, having as its ele- 
ments a logical, a cosmic and a spiritual factor. 
The final purpose and aim in every process in edu- 
cation is freedom; individual freedom, race free- 
dom, spiritual freedom. 

Spiritual Freedom. — This doctrine of educa- 
tion has attempted to prove that the school is a 
spiritual organism, that teaching is a spiritual 
process and that the purpose of thought and life 
is to unfold spirit in and through the world process. 
The final problem in education — spiritual freedom 
— will now be solved by making a close study of 
Hegel's Philosophy of History. According to this 
thinker universal history is the progress in the 
consciousness of freedom. It shows successively 
that "one is free," that ''some are free" and ''man 
as man is free" and finally that "it is the freedom 
of spirit which constitutes its essence." The 
Orientals know that one is free, but this freedom 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 303 

is mere caprice. The consciousness of Evolution of 
freedom first arose among the Greeks, Freedom 
but their freedom was conditioned by the natural- 
The Greeks and Romans knew that some are free, 
but did not reahze that man as such is free. The 
Germans influenced by Christianity attained the 
consciousness that man, as such, is free. History 
traces the process by which the consciousness of 
freedom is realized. 

Essentials in Spiritual Freedom. — Anaxagoras 
was the first thinker to set forth the doctrine 
that nous governs the world. He did not have the 
ability and insight to apply this principle to the 
concrete world, but left it to Socrates, Plato and 
Aristotle to explain the immanence of the universal 
in the individual. Hegel uses the world spirit as 
the guiding force in the development and 
explanation of the historic process. To Governs 
him each nation represents a particular 
element in the progress of the universal spirit. 
When a nation accomplishes the highest mission 
possible, it yields up the universal principle to 
another one higher in the scale of freedom. Each 
nation represents a phase or moment in the progress 
of the consciousness of freedom. 

The material used in universal history to explain 
the progress of freedom, is law, principle, purpose^ 
personality, subjectivity and the cunning 

c rr\i • 1 1 • • J • "^^^ State 

of reason. These mner, human activities 

are externalized in human deeds, human events, 

human constitutions, and states. ''The state is 



304 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

the divine idea as it exists on earth." In Hegelian 
terminology, society and the state are the very 
conditions in which freedom is realized. — It is 
only by a constitution that the abstraction, the state 
attains life and reality. — The state is the idea of 
spirit in the external manifestation of human will 
and its freedom. — Universal history exhibits the 
gradation in the development of that principle whose 
substantial purport is the consciousness of freedom. 
The aims, the principles and laws, found in the 
the inner essence of history, are subjective and have 
no objective existence in the external world until 
the activity of man transforms these subjective 
relations into objective deeds. The so-called his- 
torical personages are means to freedom 
Historical bccausc they represent the advanced 
margin of human life and civilization. A 
world historical individual is devoted to a single 
purpose in life. In the deeds of such men universal 
reason realizes itself. 

In the progress of nations, spirit is at war with it- 
self, it separates itself from itself, overcomes itself 
and works out its freedom through its own creative 
energy. Spirit begins with a germ of potentiality, 
an undeveloped form and progresses toward actual- 
ity. The evolution of the individual par- 
Tndividuai allels the evolution of the race. The child 
Race*^^ with stored-up energy is developed into 
an actual, ideal spiritual being, in the 
same manner that nations are gradually unfolded 
into higher forms of life and civilization. The edu- 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 305 

cative process of the individual pupil harmonizes 
with the race process in history. According to this 
theory of culture epochs the child in its develop- 
ment parallels the race in its development toward 
freedom. The Orientals are the child race of un- 
reflected consciousness and have only objective 
spiritual existence. They represent the dawn of 
human consciousness which is gradually unfolded 
by passing through the various stages of human 
progress and racial evolution. 

China. — History begins with China, at the same 
time the oldest and the newest nation in the world. 
It is the oldest, because early in time China at- 
tained the present state of advancement. It is 
also the newest nation because subjectivity and 
inner life now begins to dawn upon the nation. 
As yet there is no distinction between the natural 
and the spiritual, the individual and substantial. 
The substantial, the Emperor, rules not n^ 

from a moral disposition, but as a despot. ouaiism 
There is no reflection on the part of the subject, 
nor no thought splitting into the real and ideal. 
In this grade of civilization, the person ruled does 
not recognize in the ruler a being in harmony with 
himself, "one with its own essential being." The 
universal will, the Emperor, rules, and the individual 
subject obeys. He does not think, he does not 
reflect, he does not question the motive of the ruler, 
but simply obeys. If he does not obey, if he sepa- 
rates himself from the ruler, he receives objective 
punishment (bastinadoed) rather than subjective 
20 



306 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

discipline. The element of subjectivity on the part 
of the one ruled is wanting. The law of the Em- 
peror is the law of the subject. All subjective 
freedom, all moral ideas, all personality, all individ- 
uality, and all inner life in general are wanting in 
China's civilization. The Chinese do not distinguish 
between accident and intention. If one kills another 
accidentally, he is punished in the same manner 
as if he killed him intentionally. 

As to religion, the Chinese worship pure Nothing 
as God. They have contempt for individuality, 
for personal existence and cherish the meanest 
opinion of themselves. Suicide is a daily occurrence, 
and shows the little respect they have for them- 
selves and life. 

The Chinese have no science in the true sense of 
the word. Their science is empirical and utilitarian. 
The Chinese philosophy is Pythagorean and based 
upon the fundamental principle of reason — Tao. 
They do not excel in mathematics, physics nor 
astronomy. Medicine is in its empirical state. 
The ideal and truly beautiful is not found in China's 
art. In short, whatever may be called spiritual, 
"unconstrained morality, in practice and theory, 
heart, inward religion, science and art properly so- 
called," — all these are unknown in Chinese civil- 
ization. 

India. — In China there is no contrast between 
objective existence and subjective freedom. In 
India there is a marked distinction between the 
spiritual and the sensual, between the real and the 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 307 

ideal. China is the land of the prosaic Evolution 
understanding, India is the land of phan- ^^ DuaUsm 
tasy, imagination and sensibility. In China the Em- 
peror rules, and the subject obeys without thought. 
In India '^external conditions should become in- 
ternal ones." It is represented as the land of 
dream life; that state in which the individual ceases 
to be self, in contradistinction to the objective 
world. According to the Indian doctrine there is 
a god in everything — a universal pantheism of 
imagination rather than of thought. There is a 
god in the Ganges, the Indus, moon, stars, flowers, 
beasts, parrot, cow, etc. ''The divine is not in- 
dividualized to a subject, to concrete spirit, but 
degraded to senselessness . . . things are as 
much stripped of rationality, of finite consistent 
stability, of cause and effect, as man is of the stead- 
fastness of free individuality, of personality and 
freedom." 

In China all arc equal before the Emperor. In 
India this unity differentiates into casts. An organic 
life requires in the first place one soul, and in the 
second place, a divergence into difference. 

Brahminism. — The Brahmins are the highest 
class by which the divine is presented and brought 
to bear on the community. To attain Brahm is 
the highest conception of the Indian. "When I 
fall back within myself, and close all 

-^ ' Brahm 

external senses and say om to myself, 

that is Brahm." To secure unity with God, is to 

shut out all thought of externality. The spirituality 



308 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of the Brahmins is not pure freedom, because it has 
no inward reflection in contrast with nature. Brahm 
is pure unity of thought, the substantial unity of all. 
The Hindoo cannot think a thing because he has 
not the ability to reflect by rational attributes. 
The activity of the Indian is due to external usage, 
rather than to personality and subjectivity. They 
are said to be tender, mild and beautiful, but 
lacking rectitude, morality and spiritual freedom. 
As freedom is wanting, there can be no state, for: 

"A state is a realization of spirit, such that in it, the self-con- 
scious being of spirit, the freedom of the will is realized as law." 

There is, therefore, no morality, no true religion 
and nothing that may be called historical truth. 
That which the Indian gains through imagination 
may be the opposite truth gained by intellectual 
reflection. 

Buddhism. — The elevation of spirit to subjec- 
tivity takes place negatively through the doctrine 
of nothingness and affirmatively by a union of 
spirit in human form. 

According to the dogma of Buddhism nothing- 
ness is the principle of all things. All things come 
from nothingness and all things pass into nothing- 
ness. The various forms of the phe- 

Nothingness i' n j.- 

nomenal world are mere modmcations 
of a process. Beyond finite existence, beyond the 
reach of the human mind is a region of Abstract 
Nothingness called the ''Supreme Being." ''This 
real principle of the universe is, it is said, in eternal 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 309 

repose, and in itself unchangeable. Its essence 
consists in the absence of activity and volition. 
For Nothingness is abstract unity with itself. To 
obtain happiness, therefore, man must seek to 
assimilate himself to this principle by continued 
victories over himself; and for the sake of this, do 
nothing, wish nothing, desire nothing." To obtain 
perfection it is necessary to free one's self from all 
activity and to attain a state of pure passivity. 
To attain this condition is to harmonize one's self 
with Foe. 

Buddhism also sets forth the theory that the 
spirit, immersed in the objective attains unity with 
the Absolute in an affirmative manner. Spirit is 
not understood in the pure subjectivity of thought, 
but as an immediate unreflected form of humanity. 
They worship the spirit of man, the spirit of a 
departed teacher or the living spirit of the grand 
Lama. In the Lamaistic worship it is the universal 
spirit in man that is revered and not the individual, 
objective, concrete being. 

Persia. — The dualism of spirit and nature now 
develops into light and darkness. The principle 
of conscious development of activity, of life begins 
with the doctrine of Zoroaster. The universal is 
not recognized as spirit and truth, but is manifest 
as light. Ormuzd or light has within it 
the elements of the good and true, of ^'^^* 

knowledge and choice. Ahriman or darkness implies 
the evil, the bad, the wicked. Light involves not 



310 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

only a universal physical element, but also the 
spiritual purity, the Good. 

"Man sustains a relation to light, to the Abstract Good, as to 
something objective which is acknowledged, reverenced and evoked 
to activity by his will." 

It is the nature of thought to be dualistic. This 
dualism in Persian thought has not yet been over- 
come, because spirit has not completely realized 
itself. There is still recognized a struggle between 
light and darkness, natural and spiritual, ideal and 
real. In the progress of the consciousness of free- 
dom in Chinese thought, in Indian thought and in 
Persian thought we are now brought face to face 
with the universal, but only as light. Spirit has not 
yet realized itself, has not yet overcome its duality 
and has not yet attained its freedom. This same 
dualistic principle is seen in Syrian life and thought, 
not as light and darkness, but as pain and pleasure. 
Pain is an element of worship, and a means by 
which man realizes his subjectivity. 

Judea. — In Jewish thought there is still a struggle 
between the spiritual and the natural, the ideal 
and the real. 

"Spirit descends into the depths of its own being, and recognizes 
the abstract fundamental principle as the spiritual. Nature, 
which in the East is the primary and fundamental existence, is now 
depressed to the condition of a mere creature; and Spirit now 
occupies the first place." 

The Persian light has developed into the Jewish 
Jehovah. The spiritual, which in early thought 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 311 

was dishonored, now frees itself of the sensuous, 
attains its true dignity and position, while nature 
is merely the robe of glory and has its existence and 
origin in the spiritual. 

The individual has not yet attained his true 
freedom, '^because the Absolute itself is not com- 
prehended as concrete spirit" (Christ). The sub- 
jective feehng has been developed, the concrete 
pure heart, repentance, devotion, but the ^^'"* 

concrete individual does not recognize himself as 
the polar opposite of Christ, because the spirit 
has not yet been made flesh. The Jews have not 
attained pure freedom, because their God is an 
exclusive unity, one people recognize one God. 
Individuality, personality, thought, righteousness 
and morality now begin to dawn upon the human 
mind, and there is a distinct progress in the con- 
sciousness of freedom. 

Egypt. — In Egyptian civilization there is a 
continuous development and amplification of the 
dualistic thought, of the natural and spiritual, the 
human and the brute, the ideal and the real. Egypt 
is the land of the mysterious, 'Hhe riddle of the 
universe," the home of the sphinx, an ambiguous 
being, half brute and half human. The sphinx is 
the symbol of spiritual development, existing at 
this time in the history of the world. 

"The human head looking out from the brute body, exhibits 
spirit as it begins to emerge from the merely natural — to tear itself 
loose therefrom and already to look more freely around it; without, 
however, entirely freeing itself from the fetters nature had imposed." 



312 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

The sphinx is the problem solver of the world, 
and illustrates how spirit, bound as it were, with 
iron bands around its forehead, is struggling to 
free itself from the natural. The Egyptian spirit 
is trying to untangle itself from the natural, and to 
solve the problem of freedom. This problem 
involves two elements; spirit sunk in nature, and 
the impulse to liberate it. 

The land of Egypt, with its houses half below 
and half above the ground, represents that phase 
of civilization in which freedom has not yet been 
realized. It gives an exhibition of spirit, com- 
pressed, imbruted, so to speak, but still struggling 
to unloosen itself, and to utter itself. The Egyp- 
tians attained a reflective intelligence which is clearly 
seen in the construction of their pyramids and 
works of art. G. W. F. Hegel in speaking of the 
progressive development of Egyptian spirit writes: 

"It is that African imprisonment of ideas combined with the 
infinite impulse of the spirit to reahze itself objectively, which we 
find here. " 

Egypt attempts to solve the problem of the 
spiritual; namely, that spirit is embedded in nature 
and there is an impulse to liberate itself. In Egyp- 
tian thought there is a sharp antithesis 
Egyptian bctweeu naturc and spirit. In China 
there is absolute unity between these 
two principles. By the Jews, nature is considered 
a manifestation of spirit. In Egypt spirit is em- 
bruted, but is struggling to free itself. 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 313 

"The spirit never rises to the universal and higher, for it seems 
to be Wind to that; nor does it ever withdraw into itself; yet it 
symbolizes freely and boldly with particular existence, and has 
already mastered it." 

While the Egyptians worshipped animals, they 
did not worship the material animal, but the in- 
comprehensible principle slumbering in brute crea- 
tion. They ''worship the soul as still shut up within, 
and dulled by the physical organization." The 
Egyptian spirit is a mighty task-master, and at- 
tempts to solve the problem, ''I am that which is, 
that which was, and that which will be; no one has 
lifted my veil." It also proposes for solution the 
final problem of the world — that the inner essence 
of nature is thought. 

Greece. — In Greek thought, in Greek life, in 
Greek civilization, there is still progress in the 
consciousness of freedom. The Greek freedom is 
limited to the natural and there still Freedom in 
continues the struggle between the natural '^^^ Natural 
and the spiritual, the real and the ideal, the mind 
and the world objective to itself. 

"Man regards nature only as excitement to his faculties, and 
only the spiritual which he has evolved from it can have any in- 
fluence over him." 

The Greek people were a divided people, geo- 
graphically speaking. This threw them back upon 
their own subjective life and thought. They de- 
pended upon nature for the basis of their reflection, 
and formed surmises and inquiries concerning the 
meaning and significance of nature. It is a dictum 



314 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

of Greek thought that wonder and presentiment 
are the fundamental and essential categories of 
human thinking. Pan was subjective rather than 
objective, for he represented the soul thrilled by 
contact with nature. The Greeks listened to the 
murmuring and rippling fountains and interpreted 
them not objectively, but subjectively. The song 
of the Muse, is not an objectification of the fountain, 
but a creative and spiritual interpretation of its 
meaning. The noise of the rippling waters in the 
cave of Trophonius was heard and interpreted by 
the thinking, comprehending human spirit. 

"It must also be observed, that these excitements of the spirit 
are in the first instance external, natural impulses. Succeeding 
them are internal changes taking place in the human being himself." 

The Greek spirit transmutes the sensuous into 
the intellectual, the natural into the spiritual. 

The fundamental principle in Greek thought, 
is the fact that its freedom is conditioned by and 
has an essential relation to some stimulus supplied 
by nature. Greek thought is created by objec- 
tivity, and its activity consists in translating the 
external world into the internal world. Spirit is 
not yet entirely free, not self-produced, not self- 
stimulating. 

"The activity of spirit does not yet possess in itself the material 
and organ of expression, but needs the excitement of Nature and 

the matter which Nature supplies: it is not free, 
Se/f-produced self-determining spirituality, but mere naturalness 

formed to spirituality — spiritual individuality. The 
Greek spirit is the plastic artist forming the stone into a work of 
art. In this formative process the stone does not remain mere 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 315 

stone, — the form being only superinduced from without; but it 
is made an expression of the spiritual, even contrary to its nature 
and thus transformed. Conversely, the artist needs for his spiritual 
conceptions, stone, colors, sensuous forms to express his idea. 
Without such an element he can no more be conscious of the idea 
himself, than give it an objective form for the contemplation of 
others; since it can not in thought alone become an object to him. " 

The central thought in Greek life and character 
is individuality conditioned by beauty. This idea 
in realizing itself assumes the forms: the subjec- 
tive work of art — the culture of the man 

Beauty 

himself; the objective work of art — the 
shaping of the world of divinities; the political work 
of art — the formation of the constitution and the 
relations of the individuals composing it. 

The Subjective Work of Art. — This process con- 
sists in such a development of the body that it 
becomes a perfect organ of mind. The external, 
objective, physical body is made to harmonize with 
the internal, free activity of spirit. In games and 
aesthetic displays nature is wrought into spirit and 
the corporal is made to harmonize with the will. 
The outer corporal individual moves in tune with 
the inner spiritual being. 

The Objective Work of Art. — This is a proc- 
ess of shaping the divinities and making the idea 
assume an objective existence. The essence of the 
Greek divinity is spirit, not absolute spirit, but 
spirit dependent upon outer conditions. The divin- 
ity is a specialized form of existence and manifests 
itself in the sensuous world. The Greek gods were 
personalities imaged in stone, in human form. 



316 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

They were manifested in human form because no 
other form can represent so well the spiritual. It 
is the essential nature of all existence to manifest 
Greek itsclf iu a form similar to itself. The 

Religion Greek religion was defective, because its 
gods were a permanent manifestation of the spirit- 
ual, while the Christian God (Christ) is a temporary 
phase of the divine. Christ died, but the Greek 
gods were permanent in marble, wood and metal. 
God did not appear to the Greeks, for spirit had not 
yet attained its ultimate freedom. 

"One element of spirit is that it produces itself — makes itself 
what it is : and the other is, that it is originally free — that freedom 
is its nature and its idea. " 

But as the Greeks had not attained absolute 
freedom, they did not realize spirit as a universal 
principle. Since mere subjectivity was not under- 
stood by the Greeks and since the human spirit 
had not attained its true position, the Greek spirit 
was involved in fate and oracles. 

The Political Work of Art. — The State is not 
a subjectively developed and beautified physical 
existence, nor an objectively created deity. ''It is 
here a living, universal spirit, but which is at the 
same time a self-conscious spirit of the individuals 
composing the community." In Grecian political 
life the individual has not attained that degree of 
freedom in which the subjective, social unit has 
become dependent upon the state. In Roman 
civilization an abstract sovereign power rules the 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 317 

people. The Greek constitution is founded The 

upon a customary morality rather than ^***® 

upon a subjective, reflective conviction and dis- 
position. The abstract state was alien to the 
Greeks and they, therefore, lived in accordance to 
established manners and customs. The Sophists 
introduced subjective reflection and thinking, and 
declared that man is the measure of all things. 
Socrates taught that thinking is a guide to morality 
and true living; Plato, that the good can be realized 
only in the state, and Aristotle, that the final pur- 
pose of education is to reproduce in the soul the 
institutional world. 

This awakening of the inner man was antago- 
nistic to the gods, destroyed the state founded upon 
custom and wont, and inaugurated a new civiliza- 
tion based upon inner subjective condi- The 
tions. The social unit now destroys the ^^^'^^ ^^'*' 
customary moral life, and sets up a state dominated 
by thought and freedom. The disintegrating prin- 
ciple in Greek life is: 

"Subjectivity obtaining emancipation for itself. ... In 
short, subjectivity comprehending and manifesting itself, threatens 
the existing state of things in every department. . . . Thought, 
therefore, appears here as the principle of decay of substantial 
morality; for it introduces an antithesis, and asserts essentially 
rational principles." 

Rome. — The duality of life and thought, running 
through racial development now approaches recon- 
ciliation and freedom. Greek freedom was condi- 
tioned by the natural, but in Roman thought, 



318 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

spirit retreats inward upon itself, rethinks itself and 
externalizes itself in the form of an abstract political 
constitution, which governs the concrete individual. 
Inner This abstract principle creates a personal- 

subjectmty '^^ vBTsus Universality and establishes the 
fundamental principle of legal right and personal 
property. The two principles of Roman civiliza- 
tion are political universality and abstract free- 
dom. The social units are now sacrificed for the 
abstract universal principle of the state which 
dominates and rules the concrete individual. The 
repellent units composing the nation are held 
together by that abstract freedom, that abstract 
state which rules with iron power. To compensate 
for this severity of governmental power, the Roman 
was permitted to exercise a like control over his 
family. 

Roman religion was something constrained, some- 
thing concealed, as the etymology of the term 
religion would indicate. This inner secret of mind, 
Roman "^hls iuucr struggle of soul, this stupid 

Religion subjectivity of life, this melancholy con- 
dition of the world, this era of hopelessness and 
despair, misery and dejection, oppression and decay, 
pictures the fulness of time, when God sent his Son, 
when spirit was made flesh, and when peace and 
reconciliation came to the world. 

Christianity. — In the progress of the conscious- 
ness of freedom, self-consciousness has now arrived 
at that stage of development in which it realizes 
within itself the idea of spirit. The essential nature 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 319 

of spirit is that it produces itself and in its second 
phase (Christ) it separates itself from itself. 

'^Christ has appeared, — a Man who is God, — God who is Man." 

This implicit unity between the first and second 
person in the trinity exists not only for the ''think- 
ing speculative consciousness" but it must also 
exist for the "sensuous representative conscious- 
ness." This sensuous manifestation of Spirit had 
a temporary existence and after death, Christ 
himself says: 

" When I am no longer with you, the Spirit will guide you 
into all truth." 

Through the second person in the trinity The 

the church was established. Tnmty 

"It has been already remarked that only after the death of Christ 
could the Spirit come upon his friends; that only then were they 
able to conceive the true idea of God, viz., that in Christ man is 
redeemed and reconciled: for in him the idea of eternal truth is 
recognized, the essence of man acknowledged to be spirit, and the 
fact proclaimed that only by stripping himself of his finiteness and 
surrendering himself to pure self-consciousness, does he attain 
the truth. " 

In human development finite freedom has been 
annulled in order that Infinite Freedom may be 
realized. Christianity not only harmonizes finite 
mind with the Infinite Mind, but it affords 

Ihe 

a fundamental principle for the foundation Religious 

. . Consciousness 

and explanation of secular relations. I he 
religious consciousness now penetrates all civic life, 
organizes the State, creates laws and establishes 



320 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

constitutions. Christianity harmonizes nature, mind 
and God and gives depth and meaning to every 
process in education. 

"It was then through the Christian rehgion that the Absolute 
Idea of God, in its true conception, attained consciousness. Here 
man, too, finds himself comprehended in his true nature, given in 
the specific conception of 'the Son.' Man, finite when regarded 
for himself, is yet at the same time the image of God and a fountain 

of infinity in himself. He is the object of his own 
"^^ . existence, has in himself an infinite value, an eternal 

Religion" destiny. Consequently he has his true home in a 

super-sensuous world — and infinite subjectivity, gained 
only by a rupture with mere natural existence and volition, and 
by his labor to break their power within him. This is religious 
self -consciousness. " 

In and through the subjective inwardness of the 
Roman world and in and through the principles of 
Christianity, rapid progress was made in the con- 
sciousness of freedom. These Christian principles 
must now penetrate secular affairs, the State, the 
nation, the school and spiritual freedom, as such, 
must now be studied and explained, as evolved 
and developed in the German world. 

The German World. — The dualism (the objec- 
tive and the subjective) inherent in the develop- 
ment of civilization, now becomes reconciled in 
Dualism ^ud through the principle of spiritual 
Reconciled freedom. The Germans possessed this 
idea, as a basis of their religion, and attempt now 
to make it free and concrete in their civilization. 

'^The Greeks and Romans had reached maturity 
within ere they directed their thoughts and energies 
outwards.'^ The Germans absorbed foreign principles 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 321 

and converted them into their own life. In Chris- 
tianity the individual has realized his true being in 
and for itself, but it is in German thought that we 
have the free spirit, the new spirit, the spirit The Free 
of modern times. The free spirit is the ^^^"^ 

central energy of the world, out of which are evolved 
thought and reason, and those norms essential to 
the construction of the State and its constitution. 
Since the spirit of Christianity is the great civil- 
izing force and the most important factor in human 
freedom, it will be interesting to study 
thoroughly the doctrine of the church: 

"The essence of the Christian principle has already been un- 
folded; it is the principle of Mediation. Man realizes his Spiritual 
essence only when he conquers the Natural that attaches to him. 
This conquest is possible only on the supposition that the human 
and the divine nature are essentially one, and that Man, so far as 
he is spirit, also possesses the essentiality and substantiality that 
belongs to the idea of Deity. The condition of the mediation in 
question is the consciousness of this unity, and the intuition of this 
unity was given to man in Christ. The object to be attained is, 
therefore, that man should lay hold on this consciousness, and that 
it should be continually excited in him. " 

The Crusaders undertook to find the present and 
definite existence of deity. They took possession 
of the holy places, but found no corporal relics of 
Christ. The principle of religion is not ^he 

found in the sensuous, in the corporal, in Cmsaders 
the grave, but in the living spirit itself. The Cru- 
saders arrived at the fact that the essential nature 
of mankind is not to be found in the external, but 
in the internal, thinking consciousness. The most 

21 



322 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

profound principle of the world is that man is a 
self-conscious thinking being. Two principles of 
life grew out of the Crusades; self-reliance and 
spontaneous activity. 

Spirit in its final evolution must be estranged in 
the external that it may return to the internal and 
thus attain its freedom. Art spiritualizes by 
Evolution transforming the internal into the ex- 
of Spirit ternal. It is by means of this outer 
manifestation that spirit holds communion with 
spirit, and soul is brought in contact with soul. 
Spirit further craves union with itself and seeks to 
become acquainted with its otherness, in discoveries, 
in the Fine Arts and in the Revival of Learning 
which have been called by Hegel ''the hlush of 
dawn^^ and ''the day of universality." 

The Reformation. — While some were attaining 
freedom in art, some freedom in commerce, and 
some freedom in learning, Martin Luther set forth 
the doctrine that deity is embodied in subjectivity 
and spirituality, and that true unity with God is 
obtained by faith and spiritual enjoyment. Faith 
is not a belief in the sensuous, but a subjective 
assurance of Eternal Truth. The subjective thinking 
soul of man receives unto itself this Eternal Energy. 

"The development and advance of spirit from the time of the 
Reformation onwards consists in this, that spirit, having now 

gained its consciousness of its freedom, through that 
MediaTion process of mediation which takes place between man 

and God — that is, in the full recognition of the objec- 
tive process as the existence of the divine essence — now takes it 
up and follows it out in building up the edifice of secular relations. " 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 323 

The central doctrine of this book is: 

"By nature man is not what he ought to be; only through a 
transforming process does he arrive at truth. " 

The Eclaircissement. — The central thought in this 
great illuminating period of the world's history is: 

"Man is not free, when he is not thinking; for except when 
thus engaged he sustains a relation to the world around him as to 
another, an alien form of being. This comprehension 
— the penetration of the ego into and beyond other j^ Thtnkin^ 
forms of being with the most profound self-certainty 
directly involved the harmonization of being: for it must be ob- 
served that the unity of thought with its object is already implicitly 
present, for reason is the substantial basis of consciousness as well 
as of the external and natural." 

It is the function of thought to make the world 
contain what spirit is and it is the function of 
spirit to conceive the world to be the embodiment 
of reason. Mind must take cognizance of what 
objective reality is and objective reality must be 
analyzed into the eternal laws upon which phe- 
nomena is based. At this time G. W. F. Hegel says: 

"It seemed to men as if God had but just created the moon and 
stars, plants and animals, as if the laws of the universe were now 
established for the first time; for only then did they feel a real 
interest in the universe, when they recognized their own reason in 
the reason which pervades it. The human eye became 
clear, perception quick, thought active and interpreta- in La™ 

tive. . . . The laws of nature were recognized as the 
only bond connecting phenomena with phenomena. . . . Nature 
is a system of known and recognized laws; Man is at home in it, 
and that only passes for truth in which he finds himself at home; 
he is free through the acquaintance he has gained with nature. 



324 THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS 

Nor was thought less vigorously directed to the spiritual side of 
things: right and morality came to be looked upon as having their 
foundation in the actual, present will of man. " 

In recognition of the validity of the laws of nature 
and the universal law of reason this movement of 
thought and history is known as Eclaircissement. 

Spiritual Freedom Realized. — Spiritual freedom 
is realized by the student working out his own 
destiny, by willing nothing foreign to his inner 
nature, and by permitting reason to dominate and 
rule his life. When the student has thus progressed 
in the consciousness of freedom he realizes that: 

"Never since the sun had stood in the firmament and the planets 
rerolved around him had it been perceived that man's existence 
centres in his head, i.e., in thought, inspired by which he builds 
up the world of reality. Anaxagoras had been the first to say that 
noiLS governs the world; but not until now had man advanced to 
the recognition of the principle that thought ought to govern 
spiritual reality." 

It is a glorious mental achievement to live in 
the light of reason, to reconcile the contradictory 
forces in life and to attain that fundamental spirit- 
ual principle by which man becomes man. Hegel 
tells us that the history of the world is nothing 
but the development of the idea of freedom. If 
the objective is in itself rational, human insight and 
conviction must correspond with the reason which 
it embodies, and then we have the other essential 
element — subjective freedom — also realized. 

The Fundamental Process in Education finds a 
spiritual energy in the school process, in the teaching 



THE SPIRITUAL PROCESS: MIND 325 

process and in the universal process. This hidden 
power is the energy creating the school, the resi- 
dent force immanent in instruction and the abiding 
reality in the humanistic process. This spiritual 
principle underlies every growth process in teaching, 
determines every activity in thought and lies at 
the foundation of every phase of human life. This 
same activity controls the deeper logical processes 
of the world, is the ultimate reality of nature and 
constitutes the innermost essence of mind. The 
school process and the teaching process unified 
and organized by the universal process represent 
different phases in the progress of the consciousness 
of freedom. The fundamental process of the school, 
the fundamental process in teaching and the funda- 
mental process of the world are different stages in 
the growth of the spiritual energy which has for its 
final purpose, human freedom, human destiny, 
spiritual freedom, spiritual destiny. 

"The Truth shall make you Free." 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BEARING ON THE DOCTRINE OF EDUCATION AS 
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Baillie, J. B An Idealistic Construction of Experi- 
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Baillie, J. B The Origin and Significance of Hegel's 

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Bastian, H. C The Nature and Origin of Living 

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BosANQUET, Bernard The Education of the Young. 

BosANQUET, Bernard Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art. 

Boone, R. G Science of Education. 

BowNE, Borden P Theory of Thought and Knowledge. 

BowNE, Borden P Principles of Ethics. 

Bowne, Borden P Theism. 

BowNE, Borden P Metaphysics. 

Bradley, F. H Appearance and Reality. 

Brooks, Edward Mental Science and Culture. 

Browne and DeGarmo. . . .Elements of English Grammar. 

Brumbaugh, M. G The Making of a Teacher. 

Burke, J. B The Origin of Life. 

Burrage and Bailey School Sanitation and Decoration. 

Butler, Noble A Practical Grammar of The English 

Language. 

Butler, N. M The Meaning of Education. 

Caffin, C. H How To Study Pictures. 

Caird, Edward Critical Philosophy of Kant. 

Caird, Edward Evolution of Religion. 

Caird, Edward Evolution of Greek Philosophy in 

Greek Philosophers. 

Caird, Edward Essays on Literature and Philosophy. 

Caird, Edward Hegel. 

Caird, Edward Individualism and Socialism. 

Caird, Edward Present Problems of Philosophy. 

326 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 327 

Cairo, Edward Social Philosophy and Religion of 

Comte. 
Caird, John , An Introduction to the Philosophy of 

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Cairo, John University Addresses. 

Calkins, Mary W The Persistent Problems of Philosophy. 

Campbell, D. H The Evolution of Plant Life. 

Crawshaw, W. H Literary Interpretation of Life. 

Davidson, Thomas A History of Education. 

Davidson, Thomas The Education of the Greek People. 

Davidson, Thomas Philosophy of Goethe's Faust. 

Day, H. N Logic. 

DeGarmo, Charles .Essentials in Method. 

DeGarmo, Charles Interest and Education. 

DeGarmo, Charles Herbart and Herbartians. 

Dewey, John Psychology. 

Dewey, John The School and Society. 

Drummond, Henry Natural Law in the Spiritual World. 

DuTTON, S. G Social Phases of Education. 

Ellwood, C. a Prolegomena to Social Psychology. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. . . Essays. 

Everett, C. C The Science of Thought. 

Everett, C. C Fichte's Science of Knowledge. 

Fairbrother, W. H Philosophy of T. H. Green. 

Falckenberg, Richard .... History of Modern Philosophy. 

FiSKE, John Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy. 

Fitch, J. G Lectures on Teaching. 

Flint, Robert Theism. 

Frothingham, O. B Transcendentalism of New England. 

Green, J. H Spiritual Philosophy. 

Green, T. H Introduction to Hume. 

Green, T. H Prolegomena to Ethics. 

Griggs, Edward Howard . . The New Humanism. 
Griggs, Edward Howard. .Moral Education. 

Hailman, W. N Lectures on Education. 

Haldane, R. D The Pathway to Reality. 

Hanus, Paul H Educational Aims and Values. 

Harris, Samuel Philosophical Basis of Theism. 

Harris, W. T The Psychological Foundations of 

Education. 
Harris, W. T Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 



328 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Harris, W. T Hegel's Pliilosophy of Method. 

Harris, W. T Hegel's First Principles. 

Hegel, G. W. F Philosophy of Art. 

Hegel, G. W. F Philosophy of History. 

Hegel, G. W. F Philosophy of Religion. 

Hegel and Michelet The Philosophy of Art. 

Henderson, C. H Education and the Larger Life. 

Hibben, J. G Hegel's Logic. 

HiBBEN, J. G The Problem of Philosophy. 

Hillis, Newell D wight ... A Man's Value to Society. 

Hinsdale, B. A The Art of Study. 

Hitchcock, Edward Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 

Hobhouse, L. F Theory of Knowledge. 

Hughes, James L Froebel's Educational Laws. 

Hughes, James L Mistakes in Teaching. 

Huxley, F. H Science and Education. 

Hyde, William D Practical Idealism. 

James, William Talks to Teachers and Students. 

Janet, Paul Final Causes. 

Jevon, W. S Lessons in Logic. 

Jones, Henry Browning as a Dramatic Poet. 

Jones, Henry Browning as a Philosophical and 

Religious Teacher. 

Jones, Henry « Philosophy of Lotze. 

Kedney, J. S Hegel's ^Esthetics. 

King, C. F Elementary Geography. 

Ladd, G. T Philosophy of Conduct. 

Ladd, G. T Philosophy of Knowledge. , 

Ladd, G. T Philosophy of Mind. 

Ladd, G. T A Theory of Reality. 

Lang, O. H Educational Creeds. 

Laurie, S. S Institutes of Education. 

Lloyd, A. H Dynamic Idealism. 

LoQUEER, F. L Hegel as Eklucator. 

Lotze, R. H Metaphysics. 

LoTZE, R. H Outline of ^Esthetics. 

Mace, W. H Method in History. 

Mace, W. H School History of United States. 

Mackenzie, J. S Manual of Ethics. 

Mackenzie, J. S Lectures on Humanism. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 329 

Mackenzie, J. S An Introduction to Social Philosophy. 

]VL\CKENZiE, J. S Outline of Metaphysics. 

Mackintosh, R Hegel and Hegelianism. 

Martineau, James Study of Religion. 

McGilvary, E. B Principles and Methods of Hegelian 

Dialectic. 

McVannel, J. a Hegel's Doctrine of the Will. 

MiNTo, William Logic Deductive and Inductive. 

Morris, G. S Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. 

MiJNSTERBERG, HuGO Psychology and Life. 

Nash, H. S Genesis of the Social Conscience. 

Nettleship, R. L Memoir of T. H. Green. 

Ormond, a. T Basal Concepts in Philosophy. 

Ormond, a. T Foundations of Knowledge. 

O'Shea, M. V Education as Adjustment. 

Otto, Rudolph Naturalism and Religion. 

Parker, Francis W Talks on Pedagogics. 

Payne, Joseph Lectures on the Science and Art of 

Education. 

Payne, W. H Compayre's History of Pedagogy. 

Payne, W. H Contributions to the Science of Educa- 
tion. 

Quick, R. A Educational Reformers. 

Rein, Willlam Outhne of Pedagogics. 

RiBOT, T German Psychology of To-day. 

Roark, R. N Psychology and Education. 

Rogers, A. K The Religious Conception of the 

World. 

Rosenkranz, J. K. F Philosophy of Education. 

Royce, Josiah Outline of Psychology. 

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RoYCB, Josiah Religious Aspect of Philosophy. ' 

Royce, Josiah The World and the Individual. 

Sandison, Howard The Problem of Method. 

Schuyler, A Logic. 

Seeley, J. H Schwegler's History of Philosophy. 

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Small, Herbert Handbook of the Library of Congress. 

Sneath, E, H The Mind of Tennyson. 



330 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Snider, D. J Psychology: The Intellect. 

Snider, D. J Social Institutions. 

Snider, D. J The Will and its World. 

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Wallace, William Philosophy of Mind. 

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INDEX 



PAGK 

Activity 158, 221 

evolution of 157 

relational 211 

Adjective, Pedagogy of 163 

Adverb 160 

^sthetical, the 98 

Esthetic process, the 104 

Agassiz 79 

Altruism versus egoism 116 

Anaxagoras 214, 303 

Angelo, Michael 252 

Apperception 195 

Architecture 105 

Aristotle 109, 161, 303, 317 

Arithmetic 203 

Arnold, Matthew 101, 277 

Art 57, 72, 322 

Christian 254 

classic 106 

classification 105 

the ideal in 103 

objective work of 315 

political work of 316 

purpose of 101 

romantic 107 

subjective work of 315 

symbolic 105 

Baillie, J. B 242 

Bastian, Dr 257 

Beautiful, the 99 

school 98 

Beauty 315 

Beethoven 110 

Bird of Paradise 216 

Bowne, Borden P 214, 267 

Brahminism 307 

"Break, break, break" 147 

Broken unity 43 

Browning 72, 101, 144, 244, 275 

Bryant, William CuUen 144 

Buddhism 308 



PAGE 

Caird, Edward 75, 128 

John 118 

Campan, Madam 78 

Campbell, Dr 245 

Causes, eflBcient and final. . . . 183, 217 

Categorical imperative 119, 122 

Categories 82 

China 305 

Christianity 28, 303, 318, 320 

Church 321 

Cicero 34 

Civics 246 

Class, the 49 

Classification 50, 198 

Class instruction 50 

Coleridge, S. T 213 

Composition 84, 175 

Concentration 77 

Concept, Origin of ethical 119 

Conduct 44 

Conjunction 161 

Cosmic principle 41 

process 57, 293 

Correlation 76, 83, 298 

Course of study 51 

Creationism 260 

Creative energy, the. . .20, 21, 24, 184 

process, the 20 

Cross grade 51 

"Crossing the Bar" 127 

Crusaders, the 321 

Curriculum, the 74 

doctrines of 78 

the ideal 83 

Cycle 175, 192, 286 

Da Vinci, Leonardo 252 

Dante 280 

Davidson 55 

Definition, principle of 223 

DeGarmo, Dr 80, 168 

Democratic School Government. . 42 

331 



332 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Design 185 

Development, the 210, 220, 291 

illustrated 228 

the highest psychological. . . . 235 

Devotion to truth 34 

Dewey, Dr. John 139, 204 

Discipline 43, 135 

Divine process, the 230, 310 

Division, principle of 224 

Doctrine, the 237 

"Dragon Fly, the" 177 

Drawing 297 

Dualism. .142, 194, 210, 309, 317. 320 
Duties 118 

Eclaircissement 323 

Education. 30, 58, 08, 93, 95, 182, 204 

fundamental process in 324 

Educational value 85, 134 

solidarity 89 

Egypt 311 

Emerson 101, 130, 244, 207 

Energy, creative 24 

world 41 

"Enoch Arden" 153 

Enthusiasm 33 

Ethics 114 

law of 114 

Ethical organism 121, 123 

process 113 

the 113 

the pupil 113 

Euler 204 

Evolutionism 121, 200 

Exercise, opening 54 

Extensive and intensive 297 

Falckenburg 283 

Final cause 22 

Finality in education 185, 290 

Fiske 97, 258 

Fitch 59 

Force 22 

unifying 45 

Fra Angelica 251 

Freedom 20, 23, 35, 148, 221, 272, 323 

aesthetic 222, 294 

realized 24, 40, 319 

spiritual 48, 234, 302 



PAGE 

Geography 133, 228 

descriptive 230 

observational 229 

representative 230 

rational 231 

Germans 28. 303, 320 

Goethe 101, 111, 222, 280 

Government, evolution in 249 

Gradation, good 52 

Grade, the 51 

Grammar 30, 82, 102, 215 

Gray's "Elegy" 71 

"Great Stone Face" 30 

Greece 313 

Greeks 27, 100, 303, 313 

Green, T. H 190 

Griggs. Edward Howard 271, 275 

Growth movement, the 130 

process, the 130, 210 

Grube method, the 200 

Hamilton, Sir William 194 

Happiness 123 

Harris, W. T. 50, 81, 83. 201, 204, 217 

Hauser, Kasper 90 

Hegel. ., . .28. 99. 227, 247. 303. 312 

Herbart 80, 195 

Herring 251 

Heuristic method, the 185, 206 

' ' Hiawatha " 152 

Hibben 57. 292 

History 83 171, 216 

intermediate 172 

method in 169 

primary 171 

Historic purpose, the 180 

Holmes 250 

Oliver Wendell 189 

Honesty 124 

How to organize 53 

Hull House 92 

Human action and growth 267 

life, tension of 265 

Humanism 86, 98, 113 

Huxley 102, 257 

Hygiene 234 

Idea 283 

a process 280 

in education 288 



INDEX 



333 



PAGE 

Idealism 23, 194, 240 

Ideals 20, 24, 93, 269 

•* Iliad, " Homer's 143, 279 

Imagination 196 

Incentives, artificial and natural . . 56 

India 306 

Individual, the 146, 200, 219, 226 

instruction 50 

Industry 124 

Infinitive 160 

Initiation 46 

Inner law of school 22, 25, 38 

versus outer 37, 54 

Institutional ideas 171, 246 

Instructive process 49 

Interest 138 

Interjection 161 

Intuition 202 

Intuitional, the 119 

James, William 78, 139 

Janet, Paul 289 

Jevon, 224 

Jones, William A 156 

Judea 310 

Judgment 201 

Justice 91, 125 

Kant 116, 119, 187, 198 

Keats 101 

Kedney 99 

Knowing, the immanent principles 

of 213 

Knowledge 35, 75, 244 

academical and professional 

36, 132 

factors in 244 

process 243 

related 75, 298 

Ladd, G. T 260 

Landseer 250 

Language 296 

Law, fundamental 266 

of life 30, 267 

of the school 41, 47 

the 190 

Laws of nature 22, 55 

Learning 75 



PAGE 

"Legend of Sleepy Hollow" 151 

Leibnitz 195 

Lesson 31 

Library of Congress 107 

Life 256, 269, 272, 275 

highest ideals of 271 

interpretation of 273 

problem of 256, 272 

process, the 256 

theories of 256 

Literature 109, 187, 273 

Logical order 30 

process 283 

Longfellow 141, 144, 175 

"Lord Ullin's Daughter" 149 

Lotze 101, 258 

Lowell 144, 266 

Mace. W. H 171 

Man's inner nature 268 

Materialism 23 

Means and end 183 

Memory 196 

Method 67, 156 

analytic and synthetic 65 

concert 62 

concrete and abstract .... 65, 205 

consecutive 64 

deductive and inductive .... 66 

evolution 178 

in History 169 

in language 173 

lecture 64 

mind movement in 168 

objective 134, 156, 165 

oral and written 64 

Socratic 62 

subjective 166 

the final doctrine of 178 

topic 64 

Mind 100, 165, 226, 231, 301 

development of 210 

doctrines of 237, 259 

fimction of 100 

movement, the 128, 130 

the Infinite 188, 218 

the law in 166, 170 

Minto 224 

Model School 37, 245 



334 



INDEX 



PAGE 

" Moonlight Sonata" 110 

Moral life, the 126, 127 

process 113, 117 

Morality 81, 122 

Music 109 

Nash. 24 

Natural law 22, 217, 265 

Nature 22, 233, 293 

and Mind 239, 294 

man's inner and outer 268 

study 80, 295 

Newton 22, 69, 204 

Notion in education 290 

Noun 160 

Object and quality 213 

Organic 94, 238 

spiritual unity 20 

Organization, the 49, 54 

Orientals 27, 303 

Ormond, A. T. 262, 302 

Otology, the science of 232 

Outlining 225 

Parker, Francis W 79, 89, 93 

Painting 107 

Participle 160 

Particular 200 

Parts of speech 159 

Pedagogy 263, 292 

Pedagogical inference 262 

Perception 194 

Persia 309 

Pestalozzi 206 

Philosophy 39, 56, 57, 67, 187 

Physiology 232 

Picture Study 74, 250 

Planning a lesson 67 

Plato 101, 303, 313 

Poems, tension in 141 

types of 141 

Poetry 108 

the psychology of 273 

PoUteness 123 

Power, the hidden 262 

Praxiteles 106 

Preposition 161 

Primary and advanced 74 

Problem, the 256 

the Lock-step 52 



PAGE 

Process, educational. 41, 46, 68, 73, 86 

100, 125, 220, 256 

the cosmic 293 

the creative 20 

the governmental 247 

the growth 130 

the moral 117 

the school 20, 122 

the universal 283 

Program, the 52 

Professionalism 36, 133 

Promotions 50, 52 

Pronoun 160 

Psychology 198, 203 

Psychological order 30 

Psychology of subject 132 

Pupil 25, 39, 41, 123 

self-government 41, 43 

Pupil's thought-structure 131 

Purpose 23, 59, 180, 218 

the historic 180 

the supreme 185 

Quality 204, 214 

Quantity 204, 214 

Questions 63 

Race experience 27 

" Rainy Day, the " 142 

Raphael 73, 103, 253 

Ratiocination 199 

Reading 137, 290 

first movement in 136 

fourth movement in 148 

lessons in 136 

second movement in 140 

mental steps in 137 

third movement in 141 

Reason, the 202, 246, 286 

Immanent 56 

Recitation, the 59, 92 

a good 60 

beautiful 72 

length of 61 

method in 62 

purpose of 59 

Reformation 322 

Rein 80 

Relations, a system of 212, 239 

Rembrandt 252 

Reynolds 250 



INDEX 



335 



PAGE 

Roark, R. N 78, 168 

Robertson 103 

Romans 27, 303 

Rome 317 

Rosenkranz 20, 100, 167 

Royce, Josiah 240 

Sandison, Howard 167, 176 

Schelling 293 

Scholarship 36 

School City, the 45 

the. . . . 19, 21, 29, 39, 86, 99, 117 

essence, the 39 

ethics 123 

objective 23, 25, 49, 55 

management 41, 44 

organism, the 22 

organization 49, 54 

purpose of the 55, 56 

process, the 20, 122 

punishment 43 

the subjective 49, 54 

unity, the 25 

Schopenhauer 116 

Schwegler 85 

Science 91, 187 

the unity of 297 

Sculpture 106 

Self-activity 115, 158, 302 

Self-estrangement, process of . . . . 100 

Self-realization 

40, 47, 115, 120, 125, 270 

Self-sacrifice 116, 124 

Sensation 193 

Sentence, the 162 

Shakespeare 280 

Shelley 144 

Shaw, E. R 81 

Sign, laws of 206 

Small, A. W 87, 90 

Snider, D. J 143, 203 

"Snow Image, the" 150 

Social, the 86 

center 92 

growth 95 

ideals 93 

life 92 

mind 50, 90 

progress 96 

science 87 



PAGE 

Society 121 

Principles of 87 

Socrates 271, 303, 317 

Soul 262 

Soul-growth 83, 244 

unity 40 

Speer method, the 207 

Spencer, Herbert 

58, 76, 90, 220, 241, 259 

Spinoza 176 

Spirit 19, 203, 318 

concrete 311 

function of 20 

nature of 19, 322 

the living 20 

Spiritual, the 19 

freedom, essentials in 303 

freedom 58, 71, 302 

reaUzed 324 

principle, the 210, 237, 261 

process, the 24, 301 

State, the 247, 303 

"Steamboat, the first" 170 

Struggle, the inner 24 

Studies, primary and advanced. . 74 

socialized 91 

Subjects, mental processes of . . . . 133 

Syllogism in thinking 227 

the logical 226 

Teacher 29, 131 

an ideal 30 

the function of 29, 136 

Teacher's characteristics, the .... 32 
preparation, the 35 

Teaching 130, 132, 183 

final purpose in 182, 186 

law in 190 

movement in 130 

organic elements in 191 

process, the 130, 186 

principles of 182 

purpose of 180, 184 

Tennyson 76, 147, 176, 220, 276 

Tension 24, 117, 141, 265 

the universal 21, 269 

Think a thing 168, 239 

foot 69 

number 69, 204 

the class 223 

two-thirds 70 



336 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Thinking 192, 237 

and Teaching 191 

genetically 192 

law of 191 

movement in 191, 193 

process 191 

stages of 201 

the doctrine of 237 

Thought 19, 29, 197, 201 

and Thios-Unified 165, 242 

Determines Thing , . . 240 

in picture study 250 

institutionalized 248 

in the thing 156. 170 

relations 78, 233 

Relativity of 238 

returning to thought 242 

thinking thought. . 169, 197, 230 

Titian 251 

"To a Water-fowl, " 144 

Tompkins, Arnold 

51, 85, 114, 136, 141, 167 

Traducianism 260 

Training, professional and aca- 
demic 35 

Transcendentalism 120 

Trinity, the 319 

Trowbridge 282 



PAGE 

Truth 34, 243 

Truthfulness 124 

Understanding 198 

Unifying force, the 45 

process, the 168 

Unity, divine 188 

in difference 25, 128, 186, 299 

living 167 

organic 238, 254 

the mysterious 237 

ultimate 26 

Universal process, the 283 

Synthesis 45 

the 146, 199, 219, 245 

Utilitarianism 120 

Verb 161 

Washington Monument 221 

White, E. E 56, 63, 79 

Wordsworth. 102, 144 

World Knowledge 285 

movement 202, 299 

process 283 

the German 320 

Work of art 72 

Ziller. 80 

Zoraster 309 



JUL 3 1908 



